Debt peonage in Granada, Nicaragua, 1870-1930: Labor in a noncapitalist transition

HAHR - Hispanic American Historical Review

Volumn 83, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 521-559

  Dore, Elizabeth ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 64949146784     PISSN: 00182168     EISSN: 15271900     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/00182168-83-3-521     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. E. Bradford Burns called the era before coffee "Nicaragua's rustic enlightenment." See Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 1798-1858 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1991), 110-60
2. The origin of this research lies in a Sandinista debate about the capitalist transformation of Nicaragua, in which I participated at the margins when I worked in Nicaragua's Ministerio de Comercio Interior from 1982 to 1984. In that controversy, the two sides agreed that the coffee boom marked a major watershed in the country's capitalist transition; disagreement centered on whether capitalism developed from above (the Junker path) or from below (the peasant path). For the former, see Jaime Wheelock Román, Imperialismo y dictadura: Crisis de una formación social (Mexico: Siglo XXI, 1979)
3. and Oscar René Vargas, La revolución que inicio el progreso: Nicaragua, 1893-1909 (Managua: Ecotextura, 1990)
4. For the latter, see Eduardo Baumeister, Estructura y reforma agraria en Nicaragua, 1979-1989 (Managua: Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Rural, 1998), 95-136
5. Jeffrey M. Paige marshals an argument about coffee-generated capitalist development in Nicaragua for a different purpose; see Coffee and Power: Revolution and the Rise of Democracy in Central America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1997), 13-95
6. Classics on coffee and the rise of capitalism in Central America include Ciro F. S. Cardoso and Héctor Pérez Brignoli, Centro América y la economía occidental (1520-1930) (San José: Universidad de la Costa Rica, 1977)
7. Héctor Pérez Brignoli, A Brief History of Central America ( Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989), 66-97
8. and Edelberto Torres-Rivas, Interpretación del desarrollo social centroamericano (San José: EDUCA, 1971)
9. Comparative studies of coffee economies frequently point to similarities among Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador, and to Costa Rica as an exceptional case. See Robert G. Williams, States and Social Evolution: Coffee and the Rise of National Governments in Central America (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1994)
10. and Lowell Gudmundson, "Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America," in Agrarian Structure and Political Power, ed. Evelyn Huber and Frank Safford (Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), 151-76
11. David McCreery, Rural Guatemala, 1760-1940 (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1994)
12. Aldo Lauria-Santiago, An Agrarian Republic: Commercial Agriculture and the Politics of Peasant Communities (Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1999)
13. Elizabeth Dore, "Land Privatization and the Differentiation of the Peasantry: Nicaragua's Coffee Revolution, 1850-1920," Journal of Historical Sociology 8, no. 3 (1995): 303-26
14. Jeffrey L. Gould, To Die in This Way: Nicaraguan Indians and the Myth of Mestizaje, 1880-1965 (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1998)
15. Julie A. Charlip, Cultivating Coffee: The Farmers of Carazo, Nicaragua, 1880-1930 (Athens: Ohio Univ. Press, 2003)
16. Greg Grandin, The Blood of Guatemala: A History of Race and Nation (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 2000)
17. Coffee, Society, and Power in Latin America, ed. William Roseberry, Lowell Gudmundson, and Mario Samper Kutschbach (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1995)
18. McCreery emphasizes the noncapitalist nature of labor relations; see Rural Guatemala, 218-32
19. For the complexities of changing labor relations, see Mario Samper K., "Café, trabajo y sociedad en Centroamérica, 1870-1930," in Historia general de Centroamérica, vol. 4, ed. Víctor Hugo Acuña Ortega (Madrid: FLACSO, 1993), 11-106
20. Histories that treat labor relations in depth include Williams, States and Social Evolution
21. Víctor Hugo Acuña Ortega and Iván Molina Jiménez, El desarrollo económico y social de Costa Rica: De la colonia a la crisis de 1930 (San José: Alma Mater, 1986)
22. and Lowell Gudmundson, "Lord and Peasant."
23. Gould, To Die in This Way, 50-56
24. Historical accounts include Lesley Byrd Simpson, Many Mexicos (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1952), 229-39
25. Peter F. Klarén, Modernization, Dislocation, and Aprismo: Origins of the Peruvian Aprista Party, 1870-1932 (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1973), 24-37
26. and Severo Martínez Peláez, La patria del criollo (San José: Ed. Universitaria, 1979), 618-27
27. Influential novels include Jorge Icaza, Huasipungo (Barcelona: Plaza y Janés Eds., 1979 [1934])
28. and B. Traven, March to the Montería (New York: Hill and Wang, 1971). Traven's six-volume Jungle Novels, first published in the 1930s, are about the violence of peonage in Mexico
29. Arnold J. Bauer, "Rural Workers in Spanish America: Problems of Peonage and Oppression," Hispanic American Historical Review 59 (1979): 34-63
30. Alan Knight, "Mexican Peonage: What Was It and Why Was It?" Journal of Latin American Studies 18 (1986): 41-74
31. and "Debt Bondage in Latin America," in Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labour, ed. Léonie Archer (London: Routledge, 1988), 102-17
32. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon, 1957)
33. Knight, "Mexican Peonage," 41-74
34. Knight, "Mexican Peonage," 45
35. Contributions to the debate include Brian Loveman, "Critique of Arnold J. Bauer's 'Rural Workers in Spanish America: Problems of Peonage and Oppression,'"
36. and Bauer's "Reply," Hispanic American Historical Review 59 (1979): 478-89
37. Tom Brass, "Unfree Labour and Capitalist Restructuring in the Agrarian Sector: Peru and India," Journal of Peasant Studies 14, no. 4 (1986): 50-77
38. "The Latin American Enganche System: Some Revisionist Reinterpretations Revisited," Slavery and Abolition 11, no. 1 (1990): 74-103
39. and the exchange between Brass and Laird W. Bergad in the Journal of Latin American Studies 16, no. 1 (1984): 143-56
40. Laird W. Bergad, Coffee and the Growth of Agrarian Capitalism in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1983)
41. Michael J. Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture and Social Control in Northern Peru, 1875-1933 (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1985)
42. and Doug Yarrington, A Coffee Frontier: Land, Society, and Politics in Duaca, Venezuela, 1830-1936 (Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 128-33, 153-60
43. Edward Said, "Secular Interpretation, the Geographical Element, and the Methodology of Imperialism," in After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, ed. Gyan Prakash (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995), 21-39
44. Jean Comaroff and John L. Comaroff, "Millennial Capitalism: First Thoughts on a Second Coming," in Millennial Capitalism and the Culture of Neoliberalism, ed. Jean Comaroff and John L. Comaroff (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 2001), 1-56
45. Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Empire of Capital (London: Verso, 2003)
46. Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View (London: Verso, 2002)
47. and Elizabeth Dore, "Understanding Capitalism in the Third World," in Anti-Capitalism: A Marxist Introduction, ed. Alfredo Saad-Fihlo (London: Pluto Press, 2003), 164-74
48. Polanyi, Great Transformation
49. and Robert Brenner, "The Social Basis of Economic Development," in Analytical Marxism, ed. John Roemer (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986), 23-53
50. Karl Marx, Capital (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1967), 1:667-724
51. See also Michael Perelman, The Invention of Capitalism: Classical Political Economy and the Secret History of Primitive Accumulation (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 2000)
52. Brenner, "Social Basis," 25-26, emphasis added
53. For an analysis of land privatization in Diriomo, see Dore, "Land Privatization," 303-26
54. Decreto legislativo sobre comunidades indígenas y terrenos ejidales (Managua: República de Nicaragua, Tipografía Nacional, 1906)
55. Registro de Propiedades, 1922, Diriomo, AMD, Ramo Agriculture
56. For analysis of the relationship between coffee production and peasant production, see McCreery, Rural Guatemala, 218-32, 332-35
57. McCreery argues that extraeconomic coercion was a mark of the vitality of Mayan communities, because subsistence peasants did not need to work on coffee fincas. See McCreery, "Coffee and Indigenous Labor in Guatemala, 1880-1980," in Coffee under Colonialism and Postcolonialism: The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1800-1960, ed. William Gervase Clarence-Smith and Steven Topik (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, forthcoming)
58. Ley de Agricultura, Decreto de 18 de Febrero 1862, ANN. Document given to author by director of the ANN, Lic. Alfredo Gonzalez, before it was catalogued. Hereafter cited as Ley de Agricultura, 1862
59. For time series on the volume and value of Nicaraguan coffee exports, see Elizabeth Dore, "La producción cafetalera nicaragüense, 1860-1960: Transformaciones estructurales," in Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la historia agraria centroamericana, ed. Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (San José: FLACSO, 1994), 377-436
60. David Montgomery informed me that laws restricting labor mobility were commonplace in Britain and the United States in the early to mid-nineteenth century. Personal correspondence, May 1999. See also his Citizen Worker (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), 13-51
61. For analysis of planters' private power in coffee-producing countries, see Steven C. Topik, "Coffee Anyone? Recent Research on Latin American Coffee Societies," Hispanic American Historical Review 80 (2000): 225-66
62. For labor legislation, see Ilva Fernández, "Nicaragua: Estructura económica, social y política del régimen de Zelaya" (Tesis de Lic., Univ. Centroamericana, Managua, 1978), 60-73
63. and Julie Charlip, Cultivating Coffee
64. Juez de Agricultura de Diriomo to Jefe Político de Granada, 18 Feb. 1899, AMD, Juzgado de Agricultura, Correspondencia
65. Ley de Vagos, Art. 1, El Comercio (Managua), 4 Jan. 1899
66. Ley de Trabajo, Art. 1, La Gaceta (Managua), 3 Oct. 1901
67. Ley Sobre Agricultura y Trabajadores, La Gaceta, 5 Oct. 1894
68. Ley de Agricultura, La Gaceta, 9 Mar. 1898
69. Decreto de 18 de Abr., 1904, El Comercio, 22 Apr. 1904
70. El Comercio, 8 Jan. 1908
71. Diario de Granada, 10 Oct. 1907. In this period, Granada's five newspapers, regardless of partisan loyalty, tended to favor forced labor
72. Interestingly, El Diario Nicaragüense, supporter of the Conservative Party, serialized Booker T. Washington's De esclavo a catedrático in 1911. At the same time, it ran articles supporting forced labor (see, e.g., El Diario, 22 Aug. 1911)
73. For Matagalpan planters' views, see Jeffrey L. Gould, "El café, el trabajo y la comunidad indígena de Matagalpa, 1880-1925," in Pérez Brignoli and Samper, Tierra, café y sociedad, 279-376
74. Informe del Jefe Político de Managua, Memorias del Ministerio de Fomento, 1904 (Managua: n.p., 1905)
75. El Comercio, 25 Sept. 1902
76. For a similar view, see El Independiente (León), 3 Oct. 1899
77. Wheelock, Imperialismo y dictadura, 104-13
78. and Vargas, La revolución, 25-46
79. Report by Admiral Kimball, 12 Mar. 1910, National Archives, State Department, RG 59, 6369/811, cited in Gould, "El café, el trabajo y la comunidad indígena," 320
80. see also To Die in This Way, 50
81. For government policy, see Charlip, Cultivating Coffee, chap. 6
82. Interviews with Domingo Dávila and Isabel Rivera, Vera Cruz, Diriomo, Feb. 1991
83. Censo de la Población: Diriomo, Año 1883.The last documentary references I found to Diriomo's Indians or Indian community are an exchange of letters between Granada's jefe político and Diriomo's alcalde municipal. The jefe político wrote, "I will not recognize the authority or even the existence of the alcalde del pueblo because the post was legally abolished and should cease to exist." Diriomo's alcalde municipal replied, "[T]he alcalde del pueblo is one of my agents, I rely on his efforts." AMD, Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia, 27-29 Mar. 1911
84. For accounts of labor drafts, see Actas de la Junta Municipal, 5 Jan. 1878 and 9 Feb. 1884, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal
85. Juez de Agricultura de Diriomo to Jefe Político de Granada, 10 Feb. 1892, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Correspondencia
86. Partida 233, 30 Sept., Lista de Operarios 1879, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal
87. Partidas 278, 17 Sept., 397, 19 Oct., and 422, 2 Nov., Libro de Operarios Comprometidos 1899, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal
88. Matrícula 287, 4 Feb. 1905, Operarios de los Señores Eisenstick & Bahlcke, Hacienda Alemania, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal. In a contract between Ramona Zambrano's husband and Srs. Eisenstuck and Bahlcke, owners of the largest coffee company in Nicaragua, Zambrano pledged "to pay back this entire sum, and any other assistance my husband receives, by working on the coffee estates that Señores [Eisenstuck & Bahlcke] own in the Republic of Nicaragua."
89. For discussion of the gendered character of debt peonage, see Elizabeth Dore, "Patriarchy from Above, Patriarchy from Below: Debt Peonage on Nicaraguan Coffee Estates, 1860-1930," in Clarence-Smith and Topik, Coffee under Colonialism
90. Calculated by author from Censo de la población, 1883, Censo provisional de 1906, and Censo general de la República (Managua: Tipografía y Encuadernación Nacional, 1920)
91. and Libros de Operarios, 1880-1915, AMD
92. E. J. Hobsbawm, "Peasants and Politics," Journal of Peasant Studies 1, no. 1 (1973): 3-22
93. "Lista de los mozos que pertenecen a las haciendas Progreso y Gutierrez," 31 Jan. 1890, AMD, Ramo Agricultura. To underline his intent, General Avilés sent a copy of the list to the rural police with the same instructions
94. "Libro de copiados de notas del Juez de Agricultura de este pueblo, Diriomo 1890," no. 7, 25 Feb. 1890, AMD, Ramo Agricultura
95. Juan S. Urtecho, Prefecto de Granada to Juez de Agricultura de Diriomo, Granada, 4 Mar. 1890, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Correspondencia Recibida
96. In 1899, 14 planters sent lists to Diriomo's juez de agricultura. Listas de Mozos Deudores 1899, AMD, Ramo Agricultura
97. Entre Hijino Muños y Don Gral. Agustín Avilés: una demanda, 18 May 1882, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juzgado
98. Entre José Esteban Sandoval y Marcelino Alguera: una demanda, 28 Apr. 1924, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juzgado. This case shows that even after it was abolished, debt peonage continued in Diriomo
99. Demanda verbal entre Sr. José Jesus Nororis y Don Feliz Castillo, 18 Apr. 1882, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juzgado
100. Friedrich Katz, "Labor Conditions on Haciendas in Porfirian Mexico: Some Trends and Tendencies," Hispanic American Historical Review 54, no. 1 (1974): 1-47
101. Gould, "El café, el trabajo y la comunidad indígena"
102. and Yarrington, A Coffee Frontier, 27-29
103. Calculated by author from a random sample of four thousand matrículas, Libros de Matrículas, 1876-1895, AMD, Ramo Agricultura. Because the complex and sometimes incomplete nature of judicial documentation impedes quantification, I organized cases into broad categories
104. Calculated by author from Libros de Condenas, 1880-1905, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juzgado
105. Alcalde Municipal de Diriomo to Jefe Político de Granada, 4 Feb. 1884, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia
106. Jefe Político of Granada to Alcalde Municipal de Diriomo, 24 Mar. 1884, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia Recibida
107. Calculated by author from Libros de Operarios, 1880-1905, and Libros de Condenas, 1880-1905, AMD, Ramo Agricultura. Benjamin Teplitz's figures for the arrest of fugitives in Managua (1897-1900) are considerably lower than in Granada. See "The Political and Economic Foundations of Modernization in Nicaragua: The Administration of José Santos Zelaya, 1893-1909" (Ph.D. diss., Howard Univ., 1973), 200
108. Patricia Alverenga's excellent book Cultura y ética de la violencia: El Salvador, 1880-1932 (San José: EDUCA, 1996) helped me understand the nature of local policing
109. and Héctor Lindo Fuentes, Weak Foundations: The Economy of El Salvador in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990)
110. Entre Don General Terencia Sierra y Obrero Solomón Mayorga, una demanda, 22 Jan. 1906, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal, Juzgado
111. Calculated from a sample of 550 court cases between 1880 and 1905. AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juzgado
112. Actas de la Junta Municipal, 2 Jan. 1887, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal
113. Criminal por atentado contra la autoridad de los jefes de cantón, Bérnabe Marcia y Leonardo Pavón, 27 Aug. 1894, AMD, Juzgado Unico de lo Criminal
114. For the assassination of peasants in Diriomo's rural police, see Presidente y Comandante General de la Repúbica de Nicaragua, José Santos Zelaya to Alcalde Municipal de Diriomo, 17 July 1896, AMD, Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia Recibida
115. For the murder of a planter, see Entre Marcelina Rodríguez and José Cano, 2 Dec. 1889, AMD, Juez Local de lo Criminal
116. Juez de Agricultura de Diriomo to General Juan Bodán, Jefe Político, Granada, 18 Nov. 1889, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Correspondencia
117. Alcalde Municipal de Diriomo to Prefect of Granada, 26 Dec. 1889, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia
118. "All the vecinos of this place should attend in order to register themselves, all without exception. . . . It seems necessary to warn you of the urgency of this registration." Mayor de Plaza del Depertamento a los Alcaldes Municipales del Departamento: Circular, 2 Jan. 1890, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia Recibida
119. Jefe Político de Granada to Alcalde Municipal de Diriomo, 18 Feb. 1890, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal, Correspondencia Recibida
120. Juez de Agricultura de Diriomo to Juez de Agricultura de Managua, 16 Jan. 1899
121. AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios, 1876-1905
122. Entre Mercedes Pérez y Don Alejandro Mejía, su liquidación, 7 Sept. 1880, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios
123. Don Andrés Marcia a La Sra. Atanancia Antón, una demanda, 16 and 27 Feb. 1879, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios
124. Calculated by author from random sample of eight hundred cases. AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios, 1876-1905
125. Actas de la Junta Municipal, 16 Jan. 1899, AMD, Ramo Alcaldía Municipal
126. Calculated by author from random sample of eight hundred cases. AMD, Ramo Agricultura ,Juicios, 1876 -1905
127. Entre María Rugama y Don Julio Castillo, una demanda, 19 Oct. 1990, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios
128. Entre Francisco Tardencilla y Don Alejandro Mejía, demanda por trabajo, 10 Mar. 1902, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios
129. For analysis of the social dynamics of the courtroom, see Allen Wells and Gilbert M. Joseph, Summer of Discontent, Seasons of Upheaval: Elite Politics and Rural Insurgency in Yucatán, 1876-1915 (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1996), 14-17
130. Steve J. Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of the Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Medison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 114-37
131. Entre Concepción Reyes y Don Joaquín Cuadra, una demanda de trabajo, 8 May 1900, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Libro de Condenas
132. Entre Senón Pẽna y Lorenzo Carcache, una demanda, 7 Jan. 1889
133. and Entre Sunción Suazo y Don Andrés Ayala, una demanda, 8 Apr. 1882, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios
134. Entre Don Andrés Marcia y General Juan Bodán, una demanda, 8 May 1900, Libro de Condenas, AMD, Ramo Agricultura
135. For other disputes between planters, see 16 Jan. 1901 and 22 Dec. 1901, AMD, Ramo Agricultura, Juicios
136. Juez de Agricultura de Diriomo al Juez de Distrito de Granada, 17 Oct. 1902, AMD, Juez de Agricultura, Correspondencia
137. I use the term race in keeping with general usage of the word raza in turn-of-the-century Nicaragua. By adopting historical terminology, I do not mean to imply that humankind is separated into different racial groups, but rather to convey contemporary ideas about race. For analysis of the meanings of race, see Peter Wade, "Race, Nature, and Culture," Man 28, no. 1 (1993): 17-34
138. Partida 167, 18 Nov. 1875
139. Partida 399, 9 Dec. 1892
140. Matrícula 5, 4 Sept. 1902, Libros de Operarios, AMD, Ramo Agricultura
141. Agustín Pasos, Jefe Político of Granada to Alcalde Municipal de Diriomo, 26 June 1885, AMD, Correspondencia Municipal
142. In local oral history and memory, Alejando Mejíe, Diriomeño and owner of two coffee estates on Mombacho, was called "el indio rico," shortened to "el wico." Interviews with Emilio Vasquez, Mombacho, Diriomo, 7 Feb. 1994, Leticia Salazar Castillo, 8 July 1995, and Orlando Salazar Castillo, Diriomo, 16 Aug. 1995
143. Interview with Gloria Tifer Figueroa, Diriomo, Feb. 1991
144. Interview with Noé Campos Carcache, Diriomo, Feb. 1991
145. For meanings of race and ethnicity, see Joan Vincent, "The Structuring of Ethnicity," Human Organization 33, no. 4 (1974): 375-79
146. Brackette Williams, "A Class Act: Anthropology and the Race to Nation across Ethnic Terrain," Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1989): 401-44
147. Alan Knight, "Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo: Mexico, 1910-1940," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1990), 71-113
148. Antonio Escobar Ohmstede, Historia de los pueblos indígenas de México: Las huastecas, 1750-1900 (Mexico City: CIESAS, 1998)
149. International coffee prices fell by 70% from 1929 to 1932. For time series on coffee prices and Nicaraguan production, see Dore, "La producción cafetalera nicaragüense," 388-403
150. Lista de Jornaleros, Francisco Salinas, 4 Jan. 1933
151. Lista de Jornaleros, Francisco Sandoval, 8 Feb. 1937
152. Lista de Jornaleros, Celendino Borge, hijo, 16 Mar. 1937, AMD, Agricultura
153. Libros de Matrículas de Fincas y Empresas Agrícolas e Industriales, Añ̈os 1929, 1930, and 1931, Diriomo, AMD, Agricultura
154. For analyses of coffee production in the depression, see Torres-Rivas, Interpretación del desarrollo social centroamericano, 79-102, 211-17
155. and Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America since 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987), 48-51
156. For transformation of rural labor into a commodity, see Alain de Janvry, The Agrarian Question and Reformism in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1981), 94-109
157. and Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 71
158. Libro de Contratos de Jornaleros, AMD, Alcalde Municipal, 1937
159. Interviews with Doroteo Flores Pérez, Diriomo, Jan. 1991
160. and Eusebio Mena López, Diriomo, July 1991
161. Alcalde Municipal Francisco Carcache to Sr. Comandante de Policía, 22 Feb. 1930, AMD, Alcaldía Municipal
162. and Carmen Ramírez Pérez, Diriomo, 17 July 1991
163. Stern makes a similar point; see Peru's Indian Peoples, 157
164. Florencia E. Mallon, The Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition, 1860-1940 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1983), 160-67, 334-48
165. Frederick Cooper, Allen F. Isaacman, Florencia E. Mallon, William Roseberry, and Steve J. Stern, Confronting Historical Paradigms: Peasants, Labor, and the Capitalist World System in Africa and Latin America (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1993)
166. especially Cooper, "Africa and the World Economy," 84-201
167. and Roseberry, "Beyond the Agrarian Question in Latin America," 318-68
168. and Ann Laura Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt, 1870-1979 (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1995)
169. Maurice Zeitlin, The Civil Wars in Chile, or The Bourgeois Revolutions That Never Were (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1984)
170. Wheelock, Imperialismo y dictadura, 9-12, 119-40
171. For analysis of Sandinista agrarian policy, see Baumeister, Estructura y reforma agraria, 175-203
172. Elizabeth Dore and John Weeks, The Red and the Black: The Sandinistas and the Nicaraguan Revolution (London: ILAS Research Paper no. 28, 1992), 13-21
173. and Laura J. Enríquez, Harvesting Change: Labor and Agrarian Reform in Nicaragua, 1979-1990 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1991), 83-120