The Indochinese-Sundaic zoogeographic transition: A description and analysis of terrestrial mammal species distributions

Journal of Biogeography

Volumn 36, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 803-821

  Woodruff, David S ^a,c   Turner, Leslie M ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Area effect; Isthmus of Kra; Mammals; Neogene palaeogeography; Range limits; Sea levels; Southeast Asia; Species distribution; Sundaland

Indexed keywords

BAT; DATABASE; ENDEMIC SPECIES; NEOGENE; PALEOGEOGRAPHY; RANGE SIZE; SEA LEVEL CHANGE; SPECIES DIVERSITY;

ASIA; EURASIA; ISTHMUS OF KRA; SOUTHEAST ASIA;

MAMMALIA;

EID: 64649106140     PISSN: 03050270     EISSN: 13652699     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.02071.x     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Ashton, P.A. (1992) Plant conservation in the Malaysian region. In harmony with nature (ed. by Y.S. Kheong L.S. Win pp. 86 93. Malay Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.
2. Avise, J.C. (2000) Phylogeography: the history and formation of species. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
3. Bacon, A.M., Demeter, F., Duringer, P., Rousse, S., Dodo, Y., Matsumura, H., Long, V.T., Nguyen Kim Thuy, N.K., Huong, N.T.M. Anezaki, T. (2006) Records of murine rodents (Mammalia, Rodentia) in the Pleistocene localities of Tan Vinh and Ma U'Oi (northern Vietnam) and their implications to past distribution. Annales de Paléontologie, 92, 367 383.
4. Baker, R.J. Bradley, R.D. (2006) Speciation in mammals and the genetic species concept. Journal of Mammalogy, 87, 643 662.
5. Baker, W.J., Coode, M.J.E., Dransfield, J., Dransfield, S., Harley, M.M., Hoffmann, P. Johns, R.J. (1998) Patterns of distribution of Malesian vascular plants. Biogeography and geological evolution of Southeast Asia (ed. by R. Hall J.D. Holloway pp. 243 258. Backhuys, Leiden.
6. Baltzer, J.L., Davies, S.J., Noor, N.S.M., Kassim, A.R. LaFrankie, J.V. (2007) Geographical distributions in tropical trees: can geographical range predict performance and habitat association in co-occurring tree species? Journal of Biogeography, 34, 1916 1926.
7. Baltzer, J.L., Davies, S.J., Bunyavejchewin, S. Noor, N.S.M. (2008) The role of desiccation tolerance in determining tree species distributions along the Malay-Thai Peninsula. Functional Ecology, 22, 221 231.
8. Bird, M.I., Taylor, D. Hunt, C. (2005) Environments of insular Southeast Asia during the last glacial period: a savanna corridor in Sundaland? Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 2228 2242.
9. Bird, M.I., Pang, W.C. Lambeck, K. (2006) The age and origin of the Straits of Singapore. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 241, 531 538.
10. Brandon-Jones, D. (1996) The Asian Colobinae (Mammalia: Cercopithecidae) as indicators of Quaternary climatic change. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 59, 327 350.
11. Cannon, C.H. Manos, P.S. (2003) Phylogeography of the southeast Asian stone oaks (Lithocarpus). Journal of Biogeography, 30, 1 17.
12. Case, T.J. Taper, M.L. (2000) Interspecific competition, environmental gradients, gene flow, and the coevolution of species' borders. The American Naturalist, 155, 583 605.
13. Cattulo, G., Masi, M., Falcucci, A., Maiorano, L., Rondinini, C. Biotani, L. (2008) A gap analysis of Southeast Asian mammals based on habitat suitability models. Biological Conservation, 141, 2730 2744.
14. Chaimanee, Y. (1998) Plio-Pleistocene rodents of Thailand. Biodiversity Research and Training Program, Bangkok.
15. Chaimanee, Y. Jaeger, J.-J. (2000a) Occurrence of Hadromys humei (Rodentia: Muridae) during the Pleistocene in Thailand. Journal of Mammalogy, 81, 659 665.
16. Chaimanee, Y. Jaeger, J.-J. (2000b) Evolution of Rattus (Mammalia, Rodentia) during the Plio-Pleistocene in Thailand. Historical Biology, 15, 181 191.
17. Chasen, F.W. (1940) A handlist of Malaysian mammals: a systematic list of the mammals of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java, including adjacent small islands. Bulletin of the Raffles Museum, 15, 1 209.
18. Corbet, G.B. Hill, J.E. (1992) The mammals of the Indomalayan region: a systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
19. Corlett, R.T. (2006) Megafaunal extinctions in tropical Asia. Tropinet, 17, 1 2.
20. Corlett, R.T. (2007) The impact of hunting on the Mammalian fauna of tropical Asian forests. Biotropica, 39, 292 303.
21. Cranbrook, Earl of (1988) Mammals: distribution and ecology. Key environments. Malaysia (ed. by Earl of Cranbrook pp. 146 166. Pergamon, Oxford.
22. De Bruyn, M. Mather, P.B. (2007) Molecular signatures of Pleistocene sea-level changes that affected connectivity among freshwater shrimp in Indo-Australian waters. Molecular Ecology, 16, 4295 4307.
23. De Bruyn, M., Nugroho, E., Hossain, M.M., Wilson, J.C. Mather, P.B. (2005) Phylogeographic evidence for the existence of an ancient biogeographic barrier: the Isthmus of Kra seaway. Heredity, 94, 370 378.
24. Dynesius, M. Jansson, R. (2000) Evolutionary consequences of changes in species geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch climate oscillations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 97, 9115 9120.
25. Emerson, S.B., Inger, R.F. Iskandar, D. (2000) Molecular systematics and biogeography of the fanged frogs of Southeast Asia. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 16, 131 142.
26. Endo, H., Fukuta, K., Kimura, J., Sasaki, M., Hayashi, Y. Oshida, T. (2004) Phylogenetic relationships among populations of the mouse deer in the Southeast Asian region from the nucleotide sequence of cytochrome b gene. Mammal Study, 29, 119 123.
27. Francis, C.M. (2001) A photographic guide to mammals of South-East Asia. New Holland, London.
28. Francis, C.M. (2008) A field guide to the mammals of Thailand and South-East Asia. Asia Books, Bangkok.
29. Gathorne-Hardy, F.J., Syaukani, Davies, R.G., Eggleston, P. Jones, D.T. (2002) Quaternary rainforest refugia in southeast Asia: using termites (Isoptera) as indicators. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 75, 453 466.
30. Geissmann, T., Groves, C.P. Roos, C. (2004) The Tenasserim lutung, Trachypithecus barbei (Blyth 1847) (Primates: Cercopithecidae): description of a live specimen, and a reassessment of phylogenetic affinities, taxonomic history, and distribution. Contributions to Zoology, 73, 271 282.
31. Good, R. (1964) The geography of the flowering plants, 3rd edn. Longman, London.
32. Gorog, A.J., Sinaga, M.H. Engstrom, M.D. (2004) Vicariance or dispersal? Historical biogeography of three Sunda shelf murine rodents (Maxomys surifer, Leopoldamys sabanus and Maxomys whiteheadi). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 81, 91 109.
33. Guillen-Servent, A. Francis, C.M. (2006) A new species of bat of the Hipposideros bicolor group (Chiroptera: Hipposideridae) from central Laos, with evidence of convergent evolution with Sundaic taxa. Acta Chiropterologica, 8, 39 61.
34. Hall, R. (2001) Cenozoic reconstructions of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: changing patterns of land and sea. Faunal and floral migrations and evolution in SE Asia-Australasia (ed. by I. Metcalfe, J.M.B. Smith, M. Morwood I. Davidson pp. 35 56. Balkema, Lisse.
35. Hall, R. (2002) Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: computer-based reconstructions and animations. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 20, 353 434.
36. Hall, R. Holloway, J.D. (eds 1998) Biogeography and geological evolution of Southeast Asia. Backhuys, Leiden.
37. Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J. Vail, P.R. (1987) Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic. Science, 235, 1156 1167.
38. Harrison, M.E. Chivers, D.J. (2007) The orang-utan mating system and the unflanged male: a product of increased food stress during the late Miocene and Pliocene? Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 275 293.
39. Harrison, T., Krigbaum, J. Manser, J. (2006) Primate biogeography and ecology on the Sunda Shelf islands: a paleontological and zooarchaeological perspective. Primate biogeography (ed. by S.M. Lehman J.G. Fleagle pp. 331 372. Springer, New York.
40. Hayashida, A., Endo, H., Sasaki, M., Oshida, T., Kimura, J., Waengsothorn, S., Kitamura, N. Yamada, J. (2007) Geographical variation in skull morphology of gray-bellied squirrel Callosciurus caniceps. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 69, 149 157.
41. Heaney, L.R. (1984) Mammalian species richness on islands on the Sunda Shelf, Southeast-Asia. Oecologia, 61, 11 17.
42. Heaney, L.R. (1986) Biogeography of the mammals of Southeast Asia: estimates of colonization, extinction, and speciation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 28, 127 165.
43. Heaney, L.R. (1991) A synopsis of climatic and vegetational change in Southeast Asia. Climatic Change, 19, 53 61.
44. Heaney, L.R. (2004) Conservation biogeography in oceanic archipelagoes. Frontiers of biogeography (ed. by M.V. Lomolino L.R. Heaney pp. 345 360. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
45. Hearty, P.J. Kaufman, D.S. (2000) Whole-rock aminostratigraphy and Quaternary sea-level history of the Bahamas. Quaternary Research, 54, 163 173.
46. Hearty, P.J., Kinder, P., Cheng, H. Edwards, R.L. (1999) A +20 m middle Pleistocene sea-level highstand (Bermuda and the Bahamas) due to partial collapse of Antarctic ice. Geology, 27, 375 378.
47. Hill, C., Soares, P., Mormina, M., Macaulay, V., Meehan, W., Blackburn, J., Clarke, D., Raja, J.M., Ismail, P., Bulbeck, D., Oppenheimer, S. Richards, M. (2006) Phylogeography and ethnogenesis of Aboriginal Southeast Asians. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 23, 2480 2491.
48. Hirai, H., Hirai, Y., Kawamoto, Y., Endo, H., Kimura, J. Rerkamnuaychoke, W. (2002) Cytogenetic differentiation of two sympatric tree shrew taxa found in the southern part of the Isthmus of Kra. Chromosome Research, 10, 313 327.
49. Hope, G. (2005) The Quaternary in Southeast Asia. The physical geography of Southeast Asia (ed. by A. Gupta pp. 24 37. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
50. Hope, G., Kershaw, A.P., van der Kaars, S., Xiangjun, S., Liew, P.-M., Heusser, L.E., Takahara, H., McGlone, M., Miyoshi, N. Moss, P.T. (2004) History of vegetation and habitat change in the Austral-Asian region. Quaternary International, 118-119, 103 126.
51. Hortal, J., Rodriguez, J., Nieto-Diaz, M. Lobo, J.M. (2008) Regional and environmental effects on the species richness of mammal assemblages. Journal of Biogeography, 35, 1202 1214.
52. Hubbell, S.P. (2001) The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
53. Hughes, J.B., Round, P.D. Woodruff, D.S. (2003) The Sundaland-Asian faunal transition at the Isthmus of Kra: an analysis of resident forest bird species distributions. Journal of Biogeography, 30, 569 580.
54. Inger, R.F. Voris, H.K. (1993) A comparison of amphibian communities through time and from place to place in Bornean forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 9, 409 433.
55. Inger, R.F. Voris, H.K. (2001) The biogeographical relations of the frogs and snakes of Sundaland. Journal of Biogeography, 28, 863 891.
56. Kaewprom, W. (2004) Responses to burning and edge effects of small mammals at Khlong E Tao Substation, Khai Yai National Park. MSc Thesis, King Mongkut's University of Technology, Thonburi, Thailand.
57. Keng, H. (1970) Size and affinities of the flora of the Malay Peninsula. Journal of Tropical Geography, 31, 43 56.
58. Kershaw, A.P., Penny, D., Kaars, S., van der Anshari, G. Thamotherampillai, A. (2001) Vegetation and climate in lowland Southeast Asia at the last glacial maximum. Faunal and floral migration and evolution in SE Asia-Australasia (ed. by I. Metcalfe, J.M.B. Smith, M. Morwood I. Davidson pp. 227 236. Balkema, Lisse.
59. Kershaw, A.P., van der Kaars, S. Flenley, J.R. (2007) The Quaternary history of Far Eastern rainforests. Tropical rainforest responses to climate change (ed. by M.B. Bush J.R. Flenley pp. 77 115. Springer, Berlin.
60. Kingston, T., Lim, B.L. Zubaid, A. (2006) Bats of Krau Wildlife Reserve. University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi.
61. Lambeck, K. Chappell, J. (2001) Sea level change through the last glacial cycle. Science, 292, 679 686.
62. Lekagul, B. McNeely, J.A. (1988) Mammals of Thailand, 2nd edn. Saha Karn Bhaet, Bangkok.
63. 18O records. Paleoceanography, 20. Article No. PA1003, doi :.
64. Lomolino, M.V., Riddle, B.R. Brown, J.H. (2006) Biogeography, 3rd edn. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
65. Louys, J. (2007) Limited effect of the Quaternary's largest super-eruption (Toba) on land mammals from Southeast Asia. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 3108 3117.
66. Louys, J. (2008) Quaternary extinctions in Southeast Asia. Mass extinction - the danger around us (ed. by A.M.T. Elewa pp. 159 189. Springer, Heidelberg.
67. Louys, J., Curnoe, D. Tong, H. (2007) Characteristics of Pleistocene megafauna extinctions in Southeast Asia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 243, 152 173.
68. Luo, S.J., Kim, J.H., Johnson, W.E., van der Walt, J., Martenson, J., Yuhki, N., Miquelle, D.G., Uphyrkina, O., Goodrich, J.M., Quigley, H.B., Tilson, R., Brady, G., Martelli, P., Subramaniam, V., McDougal, C., Hean, S., Huang, S., Pan, W., Karanth, U.K., Sunquist, M., Smith, J.L.D. O'Brien, S.J. (2004) Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris). Public Library of Science Biology, 2, 2275 2293.
69. Lynam, A.J. (1997) Rapid decline of small mammal diversity in monsoon evergreen forest fragments in Thailand. Tropical forest remnants (ed. by W.F. Laurance R.O. Bierregaard pp. 222 240. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
70. Lynam, A.J., Round, P.D. Brockelman, W.Y. (2006) Status of birds and large mammals in Thailand's Dong Phayayen - Khao Yai forest complex. Biodiversity Research & Training Program, Bangkok.
71. MacArthur, R.H. Wilson, E.O. (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
72. Medway, L. (1983) The wild mammals of Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore). Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur.
73. Meijaard, E. (2003) Mammals of south-east Asian islands and their Late Pleistocene environments. Journal of Biogeography, 30, 1245 1257.
74. Meijaard, E. Groves, C.P. (2006) The geography of mammals and rivers in mainland Southeast Asia. Primate biogeography (ed. by S.M. Lehman J.G. Fleagle pp. 305 329. Springer, New York.
75. Mercer, J.M. Roth, V.L. (2003) The effects of Cenozoic global change on squirrel phylogeny. Science, 299, 1568 1572.
76. Metcalfe, I., Smith, J.M.B., Morwood, M. Davidson, I. (eds 2001) Faunal and floral migrations and evolution in SE Asia-Australasia. Balkema, Lisse.
77. Miller, K.G., Kominz, M.A., Browning, J.V., Wright, J.D., Mountain, G.S., Katz, M.E., Sugarman, P.J., Cramer, B.S., Christie-Blick, N. Pekar, S.F. (2005) The Phanerozoic record of global sea-level change. Science, 310, 1293 1298.
78. Molengraaff, G.A.F. (1922) De geologie der zeen van de Nederlandsch Oost-Indie archipel. Nederlandsch Aardrijkokundig Genootschap, Amsterdam.
79. Morley, R.J. (2000) Origin and evolution of tropical rain forests. J. Wiley, Chichester.
80. Morley, R.J. (2007) Cretaceous and Tertiary climate change and the past distribution of megathermal rainforests. Tropical rainforest responses to climate change (ed. by M.B. Bush J.R. Flenley pp. 1 31. Springer, Berlin.
81. Müller, R.D., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C., Steinberger, B. Heine, C. (2008) Long-term sea-level fluctuations driven by ocean basin dynamics. Science, 319, 1357 1362.
82. Musser, G.G. Newcomb, C. (1983) Malaysian murids and the giant rat of Sumatra. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 174, 329 598.
83. Nakasathien, S. (1989) Chiew Larn Dam wildlife rescue operation. Oryx, 23, 146 154.
84. Otto-Bliesner, B.L., Marshall, S.J., Overpeck, J.T., Miller, G.H., Hu, A. CAPE Last Interglacial Project members (2006) Simulating Arctic climate warmth and icefield retreat in the last interglaciation. Science, 311, 1751 1753.
85. Overpeck, J.T., Otto-Bliesner, B.L., Miller, G.H., Muhs, D.R., Alley, R.B. Kiehl, J.T. (2006) Paleoclimatic evidence for future ice-sheet instability and rapid sea-level rise. Science, 311, 1747 1750.
86. Parr, J.W.K. (2003) A guide to the large mammals of Thailand. Sarakadee Press, Bangkok.
87. Payne, J., Francis, C.M. Phillipps, K. (1985) A field guide to the mammals of Borneo. World Wildlife Fund, Kuala Lumpur.
88. Pramual, P., Kuvangkadilok, C., Baimai, V. Walton, C. (2005) Phylogeography of the black fly Simulium tani (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Thailand as inferred from mtDNA sequences. Molecular Ecology, 14, 3989 4001.
89. Quek, S.P., Davies, S.J., Ashton, P.S., Itino, T. Pierce, N.E. (2007) The geography of diversification in mutualistic ants: a gene's-eye view into the Neogene history of Sundaland rain forests. Molecular Ecology, 16, 2045 2062.
90. Richards, P.W. (1996) The tropical rain forest: an ecological study, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
91. Roos, C., Nadler, T. Walter, L. (2008) Mitochondrial phylogeny, taxonomy and biogeography of the silvered langur species group (Trachypithecus cristatus). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 47, 629 636.
92. Round, P.D., Hughes, J.B. Woodruff, D.S. (2003) Latitudinal range limits of resident forest birds in Thailand and the Indochinese-Sundaic zoogeographic transition. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 51, 69 96.
93. SAMD [Southeast Asian Mammal Databank] (2006) Ecological data set and GIS based models: a tool for biodiversity based conservation in Southeast Asia. Instituto di Ecologia Applicata, Rome, Italy. Available at: http://www.ieaitaly. org/samd/ (used June 2007; reviewed January 2008).
94. Sathiamurthy, E. Voris, H.K. (2006) Maps of Holocene sea level transgression and submerged lakes on the Sunda Shelf. Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 2 (Suppl. 1 43. Maps available at: http://www.fieldmuseum.org/research-collections/zoology/zoo-sites/seamaps/ mapindex1.htm.
95. Schipper, J. 130 co-authors (2008) The status of the world's mammals: diversity, threat, and knowledge. Science, 322, 225 230.
96. Siddall, M., Chappell, J. Potter, E.K. (2007) Eustatic sea level during past interglacials. The climate of past interglacials (ed. by F. Sirocko, M. Claussen, M.F. Sanchez Goni T. Litt pp. 74 92. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
97. Smith, A.T., Xie, Y., Hoffmann, R.S., Lunde, D., MacKinnon, J., Wilson, D.E. Wozencraft, W.C. (eds 2008) A guide to the mammals of China. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
98. Sodhi, N.S. Brook, B.W. (2006) Southeast Asian biodiversity in crisis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
99. van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (1950) The delimitation of Malesia and its main plant geographical divisions. Flora Malesiana I, 1, lxx lxxv.
100. Steiper, M.E. (2006) Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (genus Pongo) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci. Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 509 522.
101. Sterling, E.J., Hurley, M.M. Minh, L.D. (2006) Vietnam. A natural history. Yale University Press, New Haven.
102. Su, Y.C., Chang, Y.H., Lee, S.C. Tso, I.M. (2006) Phylogeography of the giant wood spider (Nephila pilipes, Araneae) from Asian-Australian regions. Journal of Biogeography, 34, 177 191.
103. Sun, X., Li, X., Luo, Y. Chen, X. (2000) The vegetation and climate at the last glaciation on the emerged continental shelf of the South China Sea. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 160, 301 316.
104. Sun, X., Luo, Y., Huang, F., Tian, J. Wang, P. (2003) Deep-sea pollen from the South China Sea: Pleistocene indicators of East Asian monsoon. Marine Geology, 201, 97 118.
105. Suzuki, S., Kitamura, S., Kon, M., Poonswad, P., Chuailua, P., Plongmai, K., Yumoto, T., Noma, N., Maruhashi, T. Wohandee, P. (2006) Foraging activity patterns of frugivorous or omnivorous animals on the forest floor of a tropical seasonal forest in Thailand, with reference to seasonal changes. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 54, 177 194.
106. Suzuki, S., Kitamura, S., Kon, M., Poonswad, P., Chuailua, P., Plongmai, K., Yumoto, T., Noma, N., Maruhashi, T. Wohandee, P. (2007) Fruit visitation patterns of small mammals on the forest floor in a tropical seasonal forest of Thailand. Tropics, 16, 17 29.
107. Taylor, D., Saksena, P., Sanderson, P.G. Kucera, K. (1999) Environmental change and rain forests on the Sunda Shelf: drought, fire and the biological cooling of biodiversity hotspots. Biodiversity and Conservation, 8, 1159 1177.
108. Taylor, D., Yen, O.H., Sanderson, P.G. Dodson, J. (2001) Late Quaternary peat formation and vegetation dynamics in a lowland tropical swamp; Nee Soon, Singapore. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 171, 269 287.
109. Thabah, A., Rossiter, S.J., Kingston, T., Zhang, S., Parsons, S., Mya, K.M., Zubaid, A. Jones, G. (2006) Genetic divergence and echolocation call frequency in cryptic species of Hipposideros larvatus s.l. (Chiroptera: Hipposideridae) from the Indo-Malayan region. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 88, 119 130.
110. Tosi, A.J., Morales, J.C. Melnick, D.J. (2002) Y-chromosome and mitochondrial markers in Macaca fascicularis indicate introgression with Indochinese M. mulatta and a biogeographic barrier in the Isthmus of Kra. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 161 178.
111. Tougard, C. (2001) Biogeography and migration routes of large mammal faunas in South-East Asia during the Late Middle Pleistocene: focus on the fossil and extant faunas from Thailand. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 168, 337 358.
112. Tougard, C. Montuire, S. (2006) Pleistocene paleoenvironmental reconstructions and mammalian evolution in South-East Asia: focus on fossil faunas from Thailand. Quaternary Science Reviews, 25, 126 141.
113. Tougard, C., Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V., Triamwichanon, S. Jaeger, J.J. (1996) Extension of the geographic distribution of the giant panda (Ailuropoda) and search for the reasons for its progressive disappearance in Southeast Asia during the latest Middle Pleistocene. Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, IIA Sciences de la Terre et des Planetes, 323, 973 979.
114. Vail, P.R. Hardenbol, J. (1979) Sea-level changes during the Tertiary. Oceanus, 22, 71 79.
115. Vail, P.R., Mitchum, R.M. Thompson, S. (1977) Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level, Part 4: global cycles of relative changes of sea-level. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir, 26, 83 133.
116. Van Dam, J.A., Aziz, H.A., Sierra, M.A.A., Hilgen, F.J., van den Hoek Ostende, L.W., Lourens, L.J., Mein, P., van der Meulen, A.J. Pelaez-Campomanes, P. (2006) Long-period astronomical forcing of mammal turnover. Nature, 443, 687 691.
117. Van den Bergh, G., Vos, J. Sondaar, P.Y. (2001) Late Quaternary palaeogeography of mammal evolution in the Indonesian archipelago. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 171, 385 408.
118. Vrba, E.S. (1992) Mammals as a key to evolutionary theory. Journal of Mammalogy, 73, 1 28.
119. Wallace, A.R. (1869) The Malay Archipelago. Macmillan, London.
120. Wallace, A.R. (1876) The geographical distribution of animals. Macmillan, London.
121. Warrit, N., Smith, D.R. Layprayoon, C. (2006) Genetic subpopulations of Varroa mites and their Apis cerana hosts in Thailand. Apidologie, 37, 19 30.
122. WCMC (World Conservation Monitoring Centre) (1992) Global biodiversity: status of the earth's living resources. Chapman & Hall, London.
123. Whitmore, T.C. (ed. 1981) Wallace's line and plate tectonics. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
124. Whitmore, T.C. (1984) Tropical rainforests of the Far East, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
125. Whitmore, T.C. (ed. 1987) Biogeographical evolution of the Malay archipelago. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
126. Whitmore, T.C. (1998) An introduction to tropical rain forests. Oxford University Press, New York.
127. Wiens, J.J. Graham, C.H. (2005) Niche conservatism: integrating evolution, ecology, and conservation biology. Annual Reviews of Ecology Evolution & Systematics, 36, 519 539.
128. Wikramanayake, E., Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Olson, D., Morrison, J., Lamoreux, J., McKnight, M. Hedao, P. (2002) Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington, DC.
129. Wilson, E.O. Brown, W.L. (1953) The subspecies concept and its taxonomic applications. Systematic Zoology, 2, 97 111.
130. Wilson, D.E. Reeder, D.M. (eds 2005) Mammal species of the world, 3rd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
131. Woodruff, D.S. (2003a) Location of the Indochinese-Sundaic biogeographic transition in plants and birds. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 51, 97 108.
132. Woodruff, D.S. (2003b) Neogene marine transgressions, paleogeography and biogeographic transitions on the Malay Peninsula. Journal of Biogeography, 30, 551 567.
133. Woodruff, D.S. Woodruff, K.A. (2008) Paleogeography, global sea level changes and the future coastline of Thailand. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 56 (2 1 24.
134. Wright, J.D., Miller, K.G., Sheridan, R.E., Uptegrove, J., Cramer, B.S. Browning, J.V. (2008) Late Pleistocene sea level on the U.S. mid-Atlantic margin: implications to eustasy and deep-sea temperature. Global and Planetary Change SEALAIX, doi :.
135. Zhang, R. (2000) Distribution of mammalian species in China. China Forestry Publishing, Beijing.
136. Ziegler, T., Abegg, C., Meijaard, E., Perwitasari-Farajallah, D., Walter, L., Hodges, J.K. Roos, C. (2007) Molecular phylogeny and evolutionary history of Southeast Asian macaques forming the M. silenus group. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 42, 807 816.