Some neglected aspects of medieval Muslim polemics against Christianity

Harvard Theological Review

Volumn 89, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 61-84

  Lazarus Yafeh, Hava ^a  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 64149087393     PISSN: 00178160     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0017816000031813     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (150)

1. 2 s.v. Hcombining dot belowazm; Roger Arnaldez, Grammaire et théologie chez Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm de Cordoue: Essai sur la Structure et les conditions de la penseé musulmane (Paris: Vrin, 1956); "Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm"; Roger Arnaldez, Grammaire et théologie chez Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm de Cordoue: Essai sur la Structure et les conditions de la penseé musulmane (Paris: Vrin, 1956)
2. Anwar G. Chejne, Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm (Chicago: Kazi, 1982)
3. See Muhcombining dot belowammad Shahrastānī (d. 1153), Book Religions and Philosophical Sects (ed. William Cureton; London: London Society for the Publication of Oriental Texts, 1846); of Religions and Philosophical Sects (ed. William Cureton; London: London Society for the Publication of Oriental Texts, 1846)
4. a French translation may be found in Livre des Religions et des Sectes (trans. Daniel Gisnaret and Guy Monnot; 2 vols.; Leuven: Peeters, 1986)
5. For a detailed discussion of the medieval history of Jews under Islamic rule and a comparison with their history in Europe, Marc R. Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994 rule and a comparison with their history in Europe, see Marc R. Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994)
6. See descriptions of such encounters in Mark R. Cohen and Sasson Somekh, Genizah "In the Court of Ya'qūb ibn Killis: A Fragment from the Cairo Genizah," JQR 80 (1990) 283-314
7. and compare (Ali) Maçoudi, Les Prairies d'or (9 vols.; eds. and trans. C. Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille; Paris: Société asiatique, Imprimèrie Nationale, 1863) 2. 319. trans. C. Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille; Paris: Société asiatique, Imprimèrie Nationale, 1863) 2. 319
8. Compare also Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews (2d ed.; 18 vols.; New York: Columbia University Press, 1957) 5. 83. Jews (2d ed.; 18 vols.; New York: Columbia University Press, 1957) 5. 83
9. See Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Intertwined Worlds, Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992) chap. 6, esp. 133-35
10. See George Vajda, "Juifs et Musulmans selon le Hcombining dot below belowadītcombining dot below," JA 229 (1937) 57-137
11. and compare, as an example of later literature, Samau'al Al-Maghricombining dot belowbī, Ifhcombining dot belowā;m al-Yahūd (Silencing the Jews) (ed. and trans. Moshe Perlmann; PAAJR 32; New York: American Academy for Jewish Research, 1964) 75; ET 65-66. Al-Maghricombining dot belowbī, Ifhcombining dot belowā;m al-Yahūd ("Silencing the Jews") (ed. and trans. Moshe Perlmann; PAAJR 32; New York: American Academy for Jewish Research, 1964) 75; ET 65-66
12. Ibn Qayyim al-Djawziyya [d. 1350] Hidāyat Al-Hcombining dot belowayārā fī-l-Radd 'alā-l-Yahūd wa-l-Nascombining dot belowārā (The Guidance of the Perplexed [!] in Answering the Jews and the Christians) (ed. Sayf al-Dīn al-Kātib; Beirut: Manshūrāt Dār Maktabat al-Hcombining dot belowayāt, n.d.) 196. This is part of the Muslim argument of tahcombining dot belowrīf - falsification of the scriptures - with which Muslim authors repeatedly charged both Jews and Christians. During and after the Crusades it seems to have been directed especially against Christians, as in this quotation. belowayārā fī-l-Radd 'alā-l-Yahūd wa-l-Nascombining dot belowārā ("The Guidance of the Perplexed [!] in Answering the Jews and the Christians") (ed. Sayf al-Dīn al-Kātib; Beirut: Manshūrāt Dār Maktabat al-Hcombining dot belowayāt, n.d.) 196. This is part of the Muslim argument of tahcombining dot belowrīf - falsification of the scriptures - with which Muslim authors repeatedly charged both Jews and Christians. During and after the Crusades it seems to have been directed especially against Christians, as in this quotation
13. See a detailed discussion of naskh in Camilla Adang, Muslim Writers on Judaism and the Bible from Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm (Nijmegen: Proefschrift Katholieke Universiteit, 1993) 141-65; Judaism and the Bible from Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm (Nijmegen: Proefschrift Katholieke Universiteit, 1993) 141-65
14. compare also Lazarus-Yafeh, Intertwined Worlds, 35-41
15. See ibid., 19-35. See also August Bludau, Die Schriftfälschungen der Textkritik der Bibel Häretiker: Ein Beitrag zur Textkritik der Bibel (NTAbh 11.5; Münster: Aschendorff, 1925)
16. William Adler, "The Jews as Falsifiers: Charges of Tendentious Christian Polemics Research Institute, May 15, 1989 Emendations in Anti-Jewish Christian Polemics," in Translations of Scripture: Proceedings of a Conference at the Annenberg Research Institute, May 15, 1989 (Philadelphia: The Institute, 1990) 1-27
17. and Arthur Lukyn Williams, Justinus Martyr, The Dialogue with Trypho (London: SPCK, 1930) 150-55
18. See more details in Lazarus-Yafeh, Intertwined Worlds, 19-22
19. The Qur'anic quotations mostly follow Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (New York: New American Library, n.d.). Meaning of the Glorious Koran (New York: New American Library, n.d.)
20. See Lazarus-Yafeh, Intertwined Worlds, 50-74 ("Ezra-Uzayr: The of a Polemical Motif). Metamorphosis of a Polemical Motif)
21. Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328) was a Hanabalite doctor of Islamic law and a prolific author. His main work against Christianity is Al-Djawāb al-Scombining dot belowahcombining dot belowīhcombining dot below li-man Baddala Dīn al-Masīhcombining dot below (The True Answer to those who Falsified the Religion of Jesus). Ibn Qayyim al-Djawziyya (d. 1350) was his disciple and also wrote several books against Judaism and Christianity, among them Hcombining dot belowidāyat al-Hcombining dot belowayārā fī-l-Radd 'alā-l-Yahūd wa-l-Nascombining dot belowārā mentioned above in n. 7. On Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm (d. 1064) above, n. 1. prolific author. His main work against Christianity is Al-Djawāb al-Scombining dot belowahcombining dot belowīhcombining dot below li-man Baddala Dīn al-Masīhcombining dot below ("The True Answer to those who Falsified the Religion of Jesus"). Ibn Qayyim al-Djawziyya (d. 1350) was his disciple and also wrote several books against Judaism and Christianity, among them Hcombining dot belowidāyat al-Hcombining dot belowayārā fī-l-Radd 'alā-l- Yahūd wa-l-Nascombining dot belowārā mentioned above in n. 7. On Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm (d. 1064) see above, n. 1
22. Justinus Martyr: The Dialogue with Trypho (ed. and trans. Arthur Lukyn Williams; London: S.P.C.K., 1930) 150-55; Williams; London: S.P.C.K., 1930) 150-55
23. see M. Stern, ed. and trans., Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism and Humanities (3 vols.; Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1980) 2, 480
24. Benedict de Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (trans. R. H. M. Elwes; London: Routledge, n.d.) 120-32, esp. 129-31. Elwes; London: Routledge, n.d.) 120-32, esp. 129-31
25. Carlo Ginzberg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller (trans. John and Anne Tedeschi; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980). Sixteenth-Century Miller (trans. John and Anne Tedeschi; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980)
26. Ginzberg, The Cheese and the Worms, 30
27. See Christine Schirrmacher, Mit den Waffen des Gegners: muslimische Kontroversen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, dargestellt an dem Beispiel der Auseinandersetzung um Karl Gottlieb Pfanders Mīzān al-Hcombining dot belowaqq und Rahcombining dot belowmatullah ibn (K)Halīl al-Ut(h)mānī al-Kairānawī's Izcombining dot belowhār al-Hcombining dot belowaqq und der Diskussion über das Barnabasevangelium (Islamkundliche Untersuchungen 162; Berlin: Schwarz, 1992). Christlich-muslimische Kontroversen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, dargestellt an dem Beispiel der Auseinandersetzung um Karl Gottlieb Pfanders "Mīzān al-Hcombining dot belowaqq" und Rahcombining dot belowmatullah ibn (K)Halīl al-Ut(h)mānī al- Kairānawī's "Izcombining dot belowhār al-Hcombining dot belowaqq" und der Diskussion über das Barnabasevangelium (Islamkundliche Untersuchungen 162; Berlin: Schwarz, 1992)
28. See Bernard Lewis, "The Other and the Enemy: Perception of Identity Difference in Islam, in Bernard Lewis and Friedrich Niewöhner, eds., Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter (Wolfenbutteler Mittelalterstudien 4; Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1922) 371-82, esp. 375-76. I cannot, however, accept Lewis's remark about the paucity of Islamic religious polemics against either Christians or Jews (p. 375) and about the lack of (Muslim) curiosity about Christianity (p. 278). and Difference in Islam," in Bernard Lewis and Friedrich Niewöhner, eds., Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter (Wolfenbutteler Mittelalterstudien 4; Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1922) 371-82, esp. 375-76. I cannot, however, accept Lewis's remark about "the paucity of Islamic religious polemics against either Christians or Jews" (p. 375) and about "the lack of (Muslim) curiosity about Christianity" (p. 278)
29. Muslim medieval authors usually designated both Jews and Christians as infidels (kāfirūn) although they were considered to be the People of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb) or the Protected People (Ahl al-Dhimma), unlike the pagan idolaters (mushrikūn). for example, Abū Hcombining dot belowāmid Al-Ghazālī (d. 1111), Faiscombining dot belowal al-Tafriqa, baina-l-Islām wa-l-Zandaqa (How to Distinguish Clearly between Islam and Heresy) (ed. Muhammad M. Abū-l-'Alā; Cairo: Maktabat al-Djundī, n.d.) 128. Later Ottoman legal texts, however, often distinguish between the Jews and other infidels, including Christians. I am grateful to Prof. Bernard Lewis for this information. For details about Al-Qarāfī's book below n. 47. infidels (kāfirūn) although they were considered to be the People of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb) or the Protected People (Ahl al-Dhimma), unlike the pagan idolaters (mushrikūn). See, for example, Abū Hcombining dot belowāmid Al-Ghazālī (d. 1111), Faiscombining dot belowal al-Tafriqa, baina-l-Islām wa-l-Zandaqa ("How to Distinguish Clearly between Islam and Heresy") (ed. Muhammad M. Abū-l-'Alā; Cairo: Maktabat al-Djundī, n.d.) 128. Later Ottoman legal texts, however, often distinguish between the Jews and other infidels, including Christians. I am grateful to Prof. Bernard Lewis for this information. For details about Al-Qarāfī's book see below n. 47
30. For knowledge of Islam in medieval Europe, see Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (1960; rev. ed.; Oxford: Oneworld, 1993)
31. Muslim authors in general felt Arius and the Nestorians to be closest to the monotheism of Islam the monotheism of Islam
32. See Sidney H. Griffith, "The Monks of Palestine and the Growth of Christian Literature in Arabic," The Muslim World 78, (1988) 1-78
33. idem, "The Gospel in Arabic: An Inquiry into Its Appearance in the Century First Abbasid Century," OrChr 69 (1985) 126-67
34. Both articles are reprinted in idem, Arabic Christianity in the Monasteries of Ninth Century Palestine (Hampshire: Variorum, 1992) 1-28, 126-67. Monasteries of Ninth Century Palestine (Hampshire: Variorum, 1992) 1-28, 126-67
35. Compare also Lazarus-Yafeh, Intertwined Worlds, 111-29
36. See 'Alī b. Rabban Al-Ţabarī's, Kitāb wa-l-Dawla (The Book of Religion and Empire) (ed. and trans. Alphose Mingana; Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1923): a semiofficial defense and exposition of Islam written by order of the Caliph Mutawakkil (847-861) with his assistance ('Ali b. Rabban Al-Ţabari [d. ca. 865] was a former Nestorian from Khorasān who converted to Islam); Al-Dīn wa-l-Dawla ("The Book of Religion and Empire") (ed. and trans. Alphose Mingana; Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1923): a semiofficial defense and exposition of Islam written by order of the Caliph Mutawakkil (847-861) with his assistance ('Ali b. Rabban Al-Ţabari [d. ca. 865] was a former Nestorian from Khorasān who converted to Islam)
37. Pseudo Al-Ghazzālī, Al-Radd al-Djamīl li-Ilāhiyat 'Īsā bi-Scombining dot belowarīhcombining dot below al-Indjīl (An Excellent Refutation of the Divinity of Jesus Christ) (published as Réfutation excellente de la divinité de Jesus Christ [ed. and trans. Robert Chidiac; Paris: Leroux, 1939] 39-40). 'Īsā bi-Scombining dot belowarīhcombining dot below al-Indjīl ("An Excellent Refutation of the Divinity of Jesus Christ") (published as Réfutation excellente de la divinité de Jesus Christ [ed. and trans. Robert Chidiac; Paris: Leroux, 1939] 39-40)
38. On this book see Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, "Étude sur la était l'auteur de al-Radd al-ǧamil bi-Ilāhiyat 'Īsā bi-scombining dot belowarīhcombining dot below al-Inǧīl attribué à Al-Ghazzālī? polémic Islamo-Chrétienne: Qui était l'auteur de al-Radd al-ǧamil bi-Ilāhiyat 'Īsā bi-scombining dot belowarīhcombining dot below al-Inǧīl attribué à Al-Ghazzālī?" Revue des Études Islamiques 37 (1969) 219-38
39. ET in idem, Studies in Al-Ghazzālī (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1975) 458-77 (Pseudo Al-Ghazzālī may have been a Coptic con vert to Islam, a contemporary of the famous Al-Ghazzālī [d. 1111] to whom his book was attributed). Other authors were less learned. 458-77 (Pseudo Al-Ghazzālī may have been a Coptic con vert to Islam, a contemporary of the famous Al-Ghazzālī [d. 1111] to whom his book was attributed). Other authors were less learned
40. See, for example, Dominique Sourdel, "Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme chrétiens d'époche Abbaside contre les chrétiens," Revue des Études Islamiques 34 (1966) 1-33
41. Some Muslim authors also vigorously attacked the cult of Mary. See, for example, Ibn Qayyim Al-Djawziyya, Hidāyat Al-Hcombining dot belowayārā, 191-92. example, Ibn Qayyim Al-Djawziyya, Hidāyat Al-Hcombining dot belowayārā, 191-92
42. See Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Some Religious Aspects of Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1981) 38-47
43. This trend becomes clear in Daniel J. Lasker's work, although he does not explicitly point out the Muslim origins of the Jewish arguments against Christianity. for example, his The Jewish Critique of Christianity under Islam in the Middle Ages (PAAJR 57; New York: American Academy for Jewish Research, 1991) 121-52; explicitly point out the Muslim origins of the Jewish arguments against Christianity. See, for example, his The Jewish Critique of Christianity under Islam in the Middle Ages (PAAJR 57; New York: American Academy for Jewish Research, 1991) 121-52
44. and idem, "The Influence of Jewish-Christian Polemics under Islam on Jewish-Christian Polemics under Christianity Jewish-Christian Polemics under Christianity" Pe'amim 57 (1994) 4-16 [Hebrew]
45. See also, Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, "More on the Judeo-Christian Polemic and its Muslim Sources," Pe'amim 61 (1994) 49-56 [Hebrew]
46. On the consistency in the Muslim arguments (not changing even after the Reformation), Bernard Lewis, The Other and the Enemy, 377. Reformation), see Bernard Lewis, "The Other and the Enemy," 377
47. See below nn. 38 and 65
48. On the inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock, see Oleg Grabar, The University Press Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1973) 62-68
49. e Siècles (Actes du Colloque International 1990; Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1992) esp. 123-24 and the bibliographical references given in n. 10 there
50. There are a few Muslim polemicists who mention the Crusades; one is Abū-l-Baqā Scombining dot belowā;lihcombining dot below b. Hcombining dot belowusayn al-Dja'farī (d. 1234) who in his Al-Radd 'alā al-Nascombining dot belowārā (In Answer to the Christians) ([ed. Muhcombining dot belowammad Hcombining dot belowasanayn; Cairo: Muktabat Wahba, 1988] 56), states that the Crusaders sent questions to the Muslims in order to test them. His book seems to be an answer to them and is apparently an abridged version of his longer Takhdjīl Man Hcombining dot belowarrafa-l-Indjīl (Putting to Shame Those who Falsified the Gospels) (published as Disputatio pro religione Muhammedanorum adversus Christianos [ed. F. J. van den Ham; 2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1877, 1890]). Abū-l-Baqā Scombining dot belowā;lihcombining dot below b. Hcombining dot belowusayn al-Dja'farī (d. 1234) who in his Al-Radd 'alā al-Nascombining dot belowārā ("In Answer to the Christians") ([ed. Muhcombining dot belowammad Hcombining dot belowasanayn; Cairo: Muktabat Wahba, 1988] 56), states that the Crusaders "sent questions to the Muslims in order to test them." His book seems to be an answer to them and is apparently an abridged version of his longer Takhdjīl Man Hcombining dot belowarrafa-l-Indjīl ("Putting to Shame Those who Falsified the Gospels") (published as Disputatio pro religione Muhammedanorum adversus Christianos [ed. F. J. van den Ham; 2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1877, 1890])
51. See Imanuel Sivan, L'Islam et la croisade, idéologie et propagande réactions des muslumanes aux croisades dans les réactions des muslumanes aux croisades (Paris: Librairie d'Amaique et d'Orient, 1968)
52. I am grateful to Dr. Reuven Amitai-Preiss for this information. See also Northrup, Muslim Christian Relations during the Reign of the Mamlūk Sultān al-Manşūr Qalāwūn, A.D. 1278-1290, in Michael Gervers and Ramzi J. Bikhazi, eds., Conversion and Continuity: Indigenous Christian Communities in Islamic Lands, Eighth to Eighteenth Centuries (Papers in Medieval Studies 9; Toronto: Pontificial Institute of Medieval Studies, 1990) 253-61. Linda S. Northrup, "Muslim Christian Relations during the Reign of the Mamlūk Sultān al- Manşūr Qalāwūn, A.D. 1278-1290," in Michael Gervers and Ramzi J. Bikhazi, eds., Conversion and Continuity: Indigenous Christian Communities in Islamic Lands, Eighth to Eighteenth Centuries (Papers in Medieval Studies 9; Toronto: Pontificial Institute of Medieval Studies, 1990) 253-61
53. See, for example, David Thomas, ed. and trans, Anti-Christian Polemic in al-Warrāq's Against the Trinity Press Early Islam: Abū 'Īsā al-Warrāq's "Against the Trinity" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)
54. and see the general surveys such as Erdmann Fritsch, Islam und im Mittelalter (Breslau: Mueller & Seiffert, 1930); Christenthum im Mittelalter (Breslau: Mueller & Seiffert, 1930)
55. Ali Bouamama, La littérature polè;mique musulmane contre le depuis ses origines jusqu' au XIIIe siècle Christianisme depuis ses origines jusqu' au XIIIe siècle (Algiers: Enterprise Nationale du Livre, 1988)
56. and Georges C. Anawati, Polemique, apologie et dialogue islamochretiens, positions classiques medievales et positions contemporaines (Rome: 1969). positions classiques medievales et positions contemporaines (Rome: n.p., 1969)
57. See also Jacques Waardenburg, "World Religions as Seen in the Light of Islam," in Alford T. Welch and Pierre Cachia, eds., Islam, Past Influence and Present Challenge (Albany: SUNY Press, 1979) 245-79
58. Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosophy of the Kalām (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976)
59. and Wilfred Madelung, Der Imam Al-Qāsim ibn Ibrāhīm, der Zaiditen und die Glaubenslehre der Zaiditen (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1965)
60. According to the Qur'an, Jesus was a prophet and the uncorrupted Gospel was a divine revelation, like the true Torah and the Qur'an itself. was a divine revelation, like the true Torah and the Qur'an itself
61. As in early Jewish-Christian circles, Paul is for the Muslims the main suspect. (Muslims also tended to vilify Emperor Constantine, who is supposed to have introduced the cross.) According to Shlomo Pines, Muslim authors not only retained Jewish-Christian traditions, but preserved in Arabic translations of authentic early Jewish-Christian writings and incorporated them into writings against Christianity. for example, Shlomo Pines, The Jewish-Christians of the Early Centuries of Christianity According to a New Source, Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 2 (1966); suspect. (Muslims also tended to vilify Emperor Constantine, who is supposed to have introduced the cross.) According to Shlomo Pines, Muslim authors not only retained Jewish-Christian traditions, but preserved in Arabic translations of authentic early Jewish-Christian writings and incorporated them into writings against Christianity. See, for example, Shlomo Pines, "The Jewish-Christians of the Early Centuries of Christianity According to a New Source," Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 2 (1966)
62. idem, "Gospel Quotations and Cognate Topics in Abd al-Jabbār's Tathbīt in Relation to Early Christian and Judeo-Christian Readings and Traditions Tathbīt in Relation to Early Christian and Judeo-Christian Readings and Traditions," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 9 (1987) 195-278
63. and idem, "Judeo-Christian Materials in an Arabic Jewish Treatise," PAAJR 35 (1967) 187-217, esp. 213
64. Al-I'lām bimā fī Dīn al-Nascombining dot belowārā min al-Fasād wa-l-Awhām wa-Izhār Mahcombining dot belowāsin Dīn al-Islām wa-Ithbāt Nubuwwat Nabiyyina Muhcombining dot belowammad'alayhi al-Scombining dot belowalāt wal-Salām (ed. Hidjāzī al-Saqqā; Cairo: Dār Al-Turāth Al-'Arabī, 1980, Some scholars (for example, Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur [2 vols. and 3 suppl. vols, Leiden: Brill, 1937] suppl. 1. 737 n. 7 and Pines, Gospel Quotation and Cognate Topics, 265 n. 42) identified this author with the Qur'anic exegete Shams Al-Dīn al-Qurtubī (d.1273, It is more plausible, however, to follow Al-Saqqā's suggestion (pp. 5-6) that the author (whose first name we do not know) died later, because he finished his book only in 1325, apparently answering a now lost Christian polemic composed in 1280. I am belowārā min al-Fasād wa-l-Awhām wa-Izhār Mahcombining dot belowāsin Dīn al-Islām wa-Ithbāt Nubuwwat Nabiyyina Muhcombining dot belowammad'alayhi al-Scombining dot belowalāt wal-Salām (ed. Hidjāzī al-Saqqā; Cairo: Dār Al-Turāth Al-'Arabī, 1980). Some scholars (for example, Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur [2 vols. and 3 suppl. vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1937] suppl. 1. 737 n. 7 and Pines, "Gospel Quotation and Cognate Topics," 265 n. 42) identified this author with the Qur'anic exegete Shams Al-Dīn al-Qurtubī (d.1273). It is more plausible, however, to follow Al-Saqqā's suggestion (pp. 5-6) that the author (whose first name we do not know) died later, because he finished his book only in 1325, apparently answering a now lost Christian polemic composed in 1280. I am grateful to Prof. J. Sadan who first drew my attention to this author
65. See Rifat Sayyid Ahmad, ed., Al-Nabī al-Musallahcombining dot below (The Armed Prophet) (2 vols.; London: Riad El-Rayyes, 1991) 1. 40 [Arabic] (the book includes material from documents issued by the Egyptian militant group Al-Djihād Al-Islāmī). ("The Armed Prophet") (2 vols.; London: Riad El-Rayyes, 1991) 1. 40 [Arabic] (the book includes material from documents issued by the Egyptian militant group Al-Djihād Al-Islāmī)
66. See also Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, "Self Criticism in Jewish and Islamic Jubilee Volume Traditions," in the W. Z. Brinner Jubilee Volume, forthcoming
67. Ahcombining dot belowmad, Al-Nabī al-Musallah, 2. 188
68. See, for example, Qur'an 9:34 and compare Al-Qāsim b. Ibrāhīm's (d. 860) accusation that all Christian clergy are greedy and gluttonous in Ignazio di Matteo, Confutazione contro i Christiani dello Zaydita Al-Qasim b. Ibrahim, RSO 9 (1921-23) 320. Ibrāhīm's (d. 860) accusation that all Christian clergy are greedy and gluttonous in Ignazio di Matteo, "Confutazione contro i Christiani dello Zaydita Al-Qasim b. Ibrahim," RSO 9 (1921-23) 320
69. See, for example, Ahcombining dot belowmad b. Idrīs Shihāb al-Dīn al-Qarāfī (d. 1285), Al-Adjwiba al-Fākhira an al-As'ila al-Fādjira (Glorious Answers to Sinful Questions) (ed. Bikr Zakī 'Awadcombining dot below; Cairo: 1986) 60-61. al-Dīn al-Qarāfī (d. 1285), Al-Adjwiba al-Fākhira an al-As'ila al-Fādjira ("Glorious Answers to Sinful Questions") (ed. Bikr Zakī 'Awadcombining dot below; Cairo: n.p., 1986) 60-61
70. Islam does not favor celibacy and even members of the Scombining dot belowūfī mystical orders generally marry belowūfī mystical orders generally marry
71. Criticisms of such fraud can be found in Christian literature as well. The miracles' ubiquity is related to the wisdespread belief in Christianity in the efficacy of images and icons, which, of course, predates Islam and iconoclasm. The miracles' ubiquity is related to the wisdespread belief in Christianity in the efficacy of images and icons, which, of course, predates Islam and iconoclasm. See Ernst Kitzinger, "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm," DOP 8 (1954) 83-150
72. Al-Qarāfī, Al-Adjwiba al-Fākhira, 61-65
73. Ibid
74. A later Christian convert to Islam revealed that the holy water in the churches never becomes putrid, not because of the priests' blessing, but because they put salt and balms in it. 'Abdallāh Al-Tarjumān Al-Mayūrqī d. 1420 in Tunisia, Tuhcombining dot belowfat al-Arīb fī-l-Radd 'alā Ahl al-Scombining dot belowalīb 26 churches never becomes putrid, not because of the priests' blessing, but because they put salt and balms in it. See 'Abdallāh Al-Tarjumān Al-Mayūrqī (d. 1420 in Tunisia), Tuhcombining dot belowfat al-Arīb fī-l-Radd 'alā Ahl al-Scombining dot belowalīb 26
75. On this author see Mikel de Epalza, La-Tuhcombining dot belowfa (Rome: n.p., 1971)
76. Al-Qarāfī attacked the irrationality of Christian dogmas and supported his views with allegedly historical anecdotes. for example, his story (Al-Adjwiba al-Fākhira, 56) about European Christian communities in France, Italy, and Spain who each year, for three consecutive days, robbed and killed Jews for having stolen their religion, but stopped when the priest told them that their religion had been refound. Al-Qarāfī also ridicules the European custom of duels. ibid., 57-58. supported his views with allegedly historical anecdotes. See, for example, his story (Al-Adjwiba al-Fākhira, 56) about European Christian communities in France, Italy, and Spain who each year, for three consecutive days, robbed and killed Jews for having "stolen their religion," but stopped when the priest told them that their religion had been refound. Al-Qarāfī also ridicules the European custom of duels. See, ibid., 57-58
77. See, for example, Tor Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Leben und Glauben Gemeinde (Archives d'Etudes Orientales 16; Stockholm: Kungl. Boktrykeriet, 1918). seiner Gemeinde (Archives d'Etudes Orientales 16; Stockholm: Kungl. Boktrykeriet, 1918)
78. Compare also Adang, Muslim Writers, 101-40
79. Ibn al-Layth (ninth century) is one of the earliest Muslim authors to discuss the topic of miracles. his Risāla (epistle) in Ahcombining dot belowmad Zakī Safcombining dot belowwat, ed., Djamharat Rasā'il al- 'Arab (4 vols.; Cairo: Muhcombining dot belowammad Al-Hcombining dot belowalabī, 1937) 3. 252-324; discuss the topic of miracles. See his Risāla ("epistle") in Ahcombining dot belowmad Zakī Safcombining dot belowwat, ed., Djamharat Rasā'il al- 'Arab (4 vols.; Cairo: Muhcombining dot belowammad Al-Hcombining dot belowalabī, 1937) 3. 252-324
80. see also the anonymous text published in Sourdel, "Un Pamphlet 13. musulman anonyme," 13
81. See also, Sarah Stroumsa, "The Signs of Prophecy: The Emergence and Arabic Theological Literature Early Development of a Theme in Arabic Theological Literature," HTR 78 (1985) 101-40
82. Later Muslim authors dealt with this topic frequently, especially when engaged in anti-Christian polemics. for example, W. Montgomery Watt's translation of Abū Hcombining dot belowāmid Al- Ghazzālī 's (d. 1111) much-printed autobiography, The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazzālī (London: Allen & Unwin, 1953) 67-68. engaged in anti-Christian polemics. See, for example, W. Montgomery Watt's translation of Abū Hcombining dot belowāmid Al- Ghazzālī's (d. 1111) much-printed autobiography, The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazzālī (London: Allen & Unwin, 1953) 67-68
83. Compare also Muhcombining dot belowammad b. Muhcombining dot belowammad Al-Māturīdī's (d. 944) more theological Kitāb al-Tawhcombining dot belowīd (ed. Fathcombining dot belowalla Kholeif; Beirut: Dār el-Mashriq, 1970) 211-12. Al-Māturīdī's (d. 944) more theological Kitāb al-Tawhcombining dot belowīd (ed. Fathcombining dot belowalla Kholeif; Beirut: Dār el-Mashriq, 1970) 211-12
84. Al-Nascombining dot belowīhcombining dot belowa al-Īmaniyya fī Fadcombining dot belowīhcombining dot belowat al-Milla al-Nascombining dot belowrāniyya (ed. Muhcombining dot belowammed A. Al-Sharqāwī; Cairo: Dār al-Scombining dot belowahcombining dot belowwa li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawzī', 1986) 108-17. fī Fadcombining dot belowīhcombining dot belowat al-Milla al-Nascombining dot belowrāniyya (ed. Muhcombining dot belowammed A. Al-Sharqāwī; Cairo: Dār al-Scombining dot belowahcombining dot belowwa li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawzī', 1986) 108-17
85. There is some confusion about the identity of this author; see Moritz Brockhaus, and Al-Sharqawī's introduction to the Cairo edition of the book Steinschneider, Polemische und apologetische Literatur in arabicher Sprache (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1877) 57-58 and Al-Sharqawī's introduction to the Cairo edition of the book
86. Most of these stories appear in 2 Kings 4, 5 and in Ezekiel's vision (here taken as an actual event) in Ezekiel 37-38. From the ninth century on, other Muslim authors compared the miracles of Jesus unfavorably with those of Moses, arguing that feeding the people of Israel with manna and quails is more miraculous than feeding the five thousand with five loaves of bread, and that splitting the sea is more miraculous than walking on water. for example, the anonymous text published in Sourdel, Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme, 27-28. Such arguments seem to be a direct answer to earlier pre-Islamic Christian claims that the miracles of Jesus were greater than those of Moses. Daniel J. Lasker, Against Whom Did Saadia Polemicize Concerning Abrogation of the Torah? Da'at 32-33 (1994) 8 (here taken as an actual event) in Ezekiel 37-38. From the ninth century on, other Muslim authors compared the miracles of Jesus unfavorably with those of Moses, arguing that feeding the people of Israel with manna and quails is more miraculous than feeding the five thousand with five loaves of bread, and that splitting the sea is more miraculous than walking on water. See, for example, the anonymous text published in Sourdel, "Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme," 27-28. Such arguments seem to be a direct answer to earlier pre-Islamic Christian claims that the miracles of Jesus were greater than those of Moses. See also Daniel J. Lasker, "Against Whom Did Saadia Polemicize Concerning Abrogation of the Torah?" Da'at 32-33 (1994) 8
87. This is how Jesus' miracles are described in the Qur'an (3:45-49), with the recurring stress on the fact that Jesus performed his miracles with the permission of God bi-idhn Allāh the recurring stress on the fact that Jesus performed his miracles "with the permission of God" (bi-idhn Allāh)
88. See Qur'an 3:47 (as against Jewish doubts cast on the chastity of Mary): said: My Lord! How can I have a child when no mortal has touched me? He [the angel] said: So [it will be]. Allāh createth what He will "She said: My Lord! How can I have a child when no mortal has touched me? He [the angel] said: So [it will be]. Allāh createth what He will. If He decreeth a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! and it is."
89. Sourdel, "Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme," 27
90. See, for example, Sargis Istunaya de Gusit, The Disputation of Sergius Stylite against a Jew (2 vols.; ed. and trans. A. P. Hyman; CSCO 338-39; Louvain: Secretariat du Corpus, 1973). the Stylite against a Jew (2 vols.; ed. and trans. A. P. Hyman; CSCO 338-39; Louvain: Secretariat du Corpus, 1973)
91. See also Bernhard Blumenkranz, Juifs et chrètiens dans le monde 430-1096 (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Études, Études Juives 2; Paris: Mouton, I960) 286-87. occidental, 430-1096 (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Études, Études Juives 2; Paris: Mouton, I960) 286-87
92. For the cross in early Muslim-Christian polemics, compare also Giacinto Bulus Marcuzzo, Le Dialogue d'Abraham de Tibériade avec 'Abd al-Rahcombining dot belowmān al-Hāshimī (Texts et Études sur l'Orient Chrétien 3; Rome: 1986) 503-15; Bulus Marcuzzo, Le Dialogue d'Abraham de Tibériade avec 'Abd al-Rahcombining dot belowmān al-Hāshimī (Texts et Études sur l'Orient Chrétien 3; Rome: n.p., 1986) 503-15
93. Arthur Lukyn Williams, Adversus Judaeos: A Bird's Eye View of Christian Renaissance Apologiae until the Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1935) 138 (on Chrysostom) and passim
94. Norman H. Baynes, "The Icons Before Iconoclasm," HTR 44 (1951) 99-101 (on Leontius)
95. For the cross in early Muslim-Christian polemics, see Sidney A. Griffith, Venerating Images "Theodore Abū Qurrah's Arabic Text on the Christian Practice of Venerating Images," JAOS 15 (1985) 62, 69-70
96. and idem, "Images, Islam and Christian Icons," 126-28, 132-33
97. See Qur'an 4:157: "And because they [the Jews] said: we killed the it so deemed unto them Messiah, 'Īsā b. Maryam, God's messenger. They killed him not and crucified him not, but it so deemed unto them."
98. See Sourdel "Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme," 29. The English ourdel Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme, 29. The English translation quoted here is from Sidney H. Griffith, Jews and Muslims in Christian Syriac and Arabic Texts of the 9th Century, Jewish History 3 (1988) 78. translation quoted here is from Sidney H. Griffith, "Jews and Muslims in Christian Syriac and Arabic Texts of the 9th Century," Jewish History 3 (1988) 78
99. See also idem, "Images, Islam and Christian Icons," 133
100. and Sergius, The Disputations of Sergius, 24 (note that the Jew employs similar polemics to that of the Muslim author). similar polemics to that of the Muslim author)
101. See, for example, Al-Qarāfī, Al-Adjwiba al-Fākhira, 299, 304
102. 2 4 (1978) 81-86; and compare Michael Hayek, "L'Origine des Termes 'Īsā Al-Masīhcombining dot below (J.C.) dans le Coran (étude)," OrSyr 7 (1962) 223-54, 365-85
103. and Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, "The Role of Jesus in Islam," Tantur Yearbook (1975/6) 19-20
104. Al-Qurtubī, Al-I'lām bimā fī Dīn belowā;rā al-Nascombining dot belowā;rā, 432
105. See Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art, 138. One can, of course, view Arabic calligraphy as a kind of visual symbolism
106. See, for example, the Isma'ili interpretation of the cross in Henry ed., Trilogie Ismaélienne (Teheran: Institut Franco-iranian, 1961) 143-46. Corbin, ed., Trilogie Ismaélienne (Teheran: Institut Franco-iranian, 1961) 143-46
107. Compare also Samuel M. Stern, Studies in Isma'ilism (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1983) 65. 1983) 65
108. See Sidney H. Griffith, "Disputes with Muslims in Syriac Christian idney H. Griffith, Disputes with Muslims in Syriac Christian Texts, in Lewis and Niewöhner, Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter, 262-63. Texts," in Lewis and Niewöhner, Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter, 262-63
109. See Robert Caspar, "Les Versions arabes du Dialogue entre le le calif Al-Mahdī (II/VIII siécle) Catholicos Timothée I et le calif Al-Mahdī (II/VIII siécle)," Islamochristiana 3 (1977) 140
110. Timothy also mentioned the blossoming of Aaron's stick (Num 17:23), but the context is not clear. The same motifs appear already in the pre-Islamic Jewish-Christian debates; The Disputation of Sergius, 11; the context is not clear. The same motifs appear already in the pre-Islamic Jewish-Christian debates; see The Disputation of Sergius, 11
111. Sidney H. Griffith, "'Ammār Al-Başrī's al-Burhān,' Christian Kalam in the First Abbasid Century, Mus 96 (1983) 180 (where the symbol of the cross is held in contrast to the Muslim worship of the Black Stone at the Ka'ba). 'Kitāb al-Burhān,' Christian Kalam in the First Abbasid Century," Mus 96 (1983) 180 (where the symbol of the cross is held in contrast to the Muslim worship of the Black Stone at the Ka'ba)
112. The Syriac and Arabic versions of the Apology of Timothy have been edited, translated, and analyzed several times. for example, Alphonse Mingana, Woodbrooke Studies: The Apology of Tymothy the Patriarch before the Caliph Mahdi, BJRL 12 (1928) 147-298; edited, translated, and analyzed several times. See, for example, Alphonse Mingana, "Woodbrooke Studies: The Apology of Tymothy the Patriarch before the Caliph Mahdi," BJRL 12 (1928) 147-298
113. L. E. Brown, "The Patriarch Timothy and the Caliph Al-Mahdi," The Moslem World 21 (1931) 38-45
114. and H. Putnam, L'Église et l'Islam sous Timothée I (780-823): Étude sur l'église nestorienne au temps des premier 'Abbasides avec une nouvelle édition et traduction du dialogue entre Timothée et al-Mahdī (Or Chr 3, Nouvelle Série; Beirut: Institut de Lettres Orientales de Beyrouth, 1975). (780-823): Étude sur l'église nestorienne au temps des premier 'Abbasides avec une nouvelle édition et traduction du dialogue entre Timothée et al-Mahdī (Or Chr 3, Nouvelle Série; Beirut: Institut de Lettres Orientales de Beyrouth, 1975)
115. See. B. Z. Kedar, "Intellectual Activities in a Holy City: Jerusalem Twelfth Century in B. Z. Kedar and R. J. Z. Werblowsky, eds., Sacred Space: Shrine, City, Land (Proceedings of the 1992 International Conference in Memory of Joshua Prawer, forthcoming). I cannot agree with Griffith who claims (Images, Islam and Christian Icons, 134-35) that after the ninth century the veneration of the cross hardly Muslim polemics as if the matter had been settled. Almost all the later Muslim authors mentioned in this paper polemicize at length against the cross. in the Twelfth Century" in B. Z. Kedar and R. J. Z. Werblowsky, eds., Sacred Space: Shrine, City, Land (Proceedings of the 1992 International Conference in Memory of Joshua Prawer, forthcoming). I cannot agree with Griffith who claims ("Images, Islam and Christian Icons," 134-35) that after the ninth century the veneration of the cross hardly appears in Muslim polemics as "if the matter had been settled." Almost all the later Muslim authors mentioned in this paper polemicize at length against the cross
116. See Ignaz Goldziher, "Die Entblössung des Hauptes," Der Islam 6 (1915) 301-16
117. A traditional girdle or article of cloth that indigenous Christians were required to wear according to Muslim regulations. Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross, 62-63 required to wear according to Muslim regulations. See Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross, 62-63
118. See Ycombining dot belowahyā b. Yahcombining dot belowyā, Al-Nascombining dot belowīhcombining dot belowa al-Īmāniyya, 75. Al-Nascombining dot belowīhcombining dot belowa al- Īmāniyya, 75
119. See the early Christian answer to Muslim polemics against the Eucharist Sidney H. Griffith, 'Ammār al-Başrī, 179. in Sidney H. Griffith, "'Ammār al-Başrī," 179
120. See, for example, 'Abdallāh Al-Mayūrqī, Tuhcombining dot belowfat al-Arīb, 32
121. See above n. 37
122. Muslim orthodox authors used Mu'tazilite arguments in this context, although in general they rejected the allegorical interpretation of the Qur'an that proponents of the early rationalistic Mu'tazilite movement (as well as of Shi'ites and mystics) employed. The Mu'tazila flourished from the eighth to the tenth centuries and propogated the belief in the free will of humans and Reason as a means to understand scripture and religion. They employed allegorical interpretation to explain away anthropomorphic descriptions of God in the Qur'an. They usually limited allegorical interpretation to cases where no other rational reading of the scripture was possible. although in general they rejected the allegorical interpretation of the Qur'an that proponents of the early rationalistic Mu'tazilite movement (as well as of Shi'ites and mystics) employed. The Mu'tazila flourished from the eighth to the tenth centuries and propogated the belief in the free will of humans and Reason as a means to understand scripture and religion. They employed allegorical interpretation to explain away anthropomorphic descriptions of God in the Qur'an. They usually limited allegorical interpretation to cases where no other rational reading of the scripture was possible
123. These claims were widespread among medieval Muslim authors. See, for example, Al-Dja'farī, Al-Radd 'alā al-Nascombining dot belowārā, 59
124. See also Shlomo Pines, "Israel My Firstborn and the Sonship of Anti-Christian Polemics Seventieth Birthday Jerusalem: Magnes Jesus: A Theme of Moslem Anti-Christian Polemics," in Ephraim E. Urbach, R. J. Zvi Werblowsky, and Chaim Wirszubski, eds., Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to G. Sholem on His Seventieth Birthday (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1967) 177-90
125. and Adang, Muslim Writers on Judaism, 163
126. See also Al-Qāsim b. Ibrāhīm's remarks about Christian Ta'wīl (allegorical interpretation) in di Matteo, Confutazione contro i Christiani, 319. Ta'wīl ("allegorical interpretation") in di Matteo, "Confutazione contro i Christiani," 319
127. Muslim authors quoted gospel verses showing that Jesus considered himself and was viewed by his disciples as a teacher and prophet (as he is described in the Qur'an), distinct from the father (for example, Matt 13:37, 26:29; Mark 13:32, 15:34; Luke 24:19). for instance, Al-Mayūrqī, Tuhcombining dot belowfat al-Arīb, 28-29. and was viewed by his disciples as a teacher and prophet (as he is described in the Qur'an), distinct from the father (for example, Matt 13:37, 26:29; Mark 13:32, 15:34; Luke 24:19). See, for instance, Al-Mayūrqī, Tuhcombining dot belowfat al-Arīb, 28-29
128. Here the author quotes to prove that Jesus lived in certain places at a certain time certain time
129. See Ar-Radd 'Alā-n-Nascombining dot belowārā de At-Tcombining dot belowabarī (eds. Ignace Abdo Khalifé and Wilhelm Kutsch; MUSJ 36; Beirut: Imprimerie Catolique, 1959) 126, 123 and passim. 'Alī At-Tcombining dot belowabarī (eds. Ignace Abdo Khalifé and Wilhelm Kutsch; MUSJ 36; Beirut: Imprimerie Catolique, 1959) 126, see also 123 and passim
130. Ps 82:6
131. Exod 7:1
132. This last sentence is meant as a rebuke to Christians who remain with their erroneous beliefs in spite of the Muslim proofs that they are false their erroneous beliefs in spite of the Muslim proofs that they are false
133. The author is referring to Exod 7:1 and perhaps to Jer 31:10, 19
134. Pseudo Al-Ghazzālī, Al-Radd al-Djamīl, 39-40
135. Muslim arguments mocking Christian descriptions of Jesus (the son of God, as it were) being born and growing up like every other person circulated as early as the ninth century; for example, Sourdel, Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme, 27. as it were) being born and growing up like every other person circulated as early as the ninth century; see, for example, Sourdel, "Un Pamphlet musulman anonyme," 27
136. The opposite possibility, that Muslim authors used earlier Jewish anti-Christian arguments, also exists, of course anti-Christian arguments, also exists, of course
137. See n. 29 above
138. This motif is stressed in detail by Muslim authors from the ninth century on, in particular Jesus' prayer to God to take the cup away from him and his cry on the cross, My God, my God, why have you forsaken me, Matt 27:46 and Mark 15:34 on, in particular Jesus' prayer to God to take the cup away from him and his cry on the cross, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" (Matt 27:46 and Mark 15:34)
139. This detail is especially repellent to Muslim authors who from the tenth century on considered all prophets (including the biblical patriarchs) to be infallible century on considered all prophets (including the biblical patriarchs) to be infallible
140. Ibn Qayyim al-Djawziyya, Hidāyat al-Hcombining dot belowayārā, 191. Compare The Book of Covenant of Joseph Kimhi (trans. Frank Ephraim Talmage; Toronto: Pontificial Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1972) 36: The great and mighty God Whom no eye has seen, Who has neither form nor image, Who said, For man may not Me and live Exod 33:20, how shall I believe that this great inaccessible Deus absconditus needlessly entered the womb of a woman, the filthy, foul bowels of a female, compelling the living God to be born of a woman, a child without knowledge or understanding, senseless, unable to distinguish between his right hand and his left, defecating and urinating, sucking his mother's breasts from hunger and thirst, crying when he is thirsty so that his mother will have compassion on him. Indeed, if she had not suckled him, he would have died of hunger like other people. There are also other Muslim arguments in his belowayārā, 191. Compare The Book of Covenant of Joseph Kimhi (trans. Frank Ephraim Talmage; Toronto: Pontificial Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1972) 36: "The great and mighty God Whom no eye has seen, Who has neither form nor image, Who said, For man may not see Me and live (Exod 33:20) - how shall I believe that this great inaccessible Deus absconditus needlessly entered the womb of a woman, the filthy, foul bowels of a female, compelling the living God to be born of a woman, a child without knowledge or understanding, senseless, unable to distinguish between his right hand and his left, defecating and urinating, sucking his mother's breasts from hunger and thirst, crying when he is thirsty so that his mother will have compassion on him. Indeed, if she had not suckled him, he would have died of hunger like other people." There are also other "Muslim" arguments in his book. See Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, "More on the Judeo-Christian Polemic," 53-55
141. It is impossible in this essay to provide details about the Shi'a - the only important schismatic sect in Islam. Suffice it to say that there are many similarities between the Shi'ite religion and Christianity, and there may have been Christian influences on its development. Shi'ites also employed symbolic and allegorical interpretations of the Qur'an and could therefore better understand Christian approaches. They rarely polemicized against them. only important schismatic sect in Islam. Suffice it to say that there are many similarities between the Shi'ite religion and Christianity, and there may have been Christian influences on its development. Shi'ites also employed symbolic and allegorical interpretations of the Qur'an and could therefore better understand Christian approaches. They rarely polemicized against them
142. According to Miguel Asin Palacios (Le Expiritualidad de AlGazel Yu Sentido Christiano [Publicationes de las Escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada, first series, A, 2; Madrid: 1934-1941]), Scombining dot belowūfī thought in general and Al-Ghazzālī (d. 1111) in particular accepted many Christian notions, and Jesus figured predominantly in Scombining dot belowūfī writings. n. 101 below. Sentido Christiano [Publicationes de las Escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada, first series, A, 2; Madrid: 1934-1941]), Scombining dot belowūfī thought in general and Al-Ghazzālī (d. 1111) in particular accepted many Christian notions, and Jesus figured predominantly in Scombining dot belowūfī writings. See also n. 101 below
143. See Louis Massignon, The Passion of al-Hcombining dot belowallāj (4 vols.; trans. Henri Mason; Bollingen Series 98; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982). vols.; trans. Henri Mason; Bollingen Series 98; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982)
144. See Al-Ghazzālī, Al-Maqscombining dot belowad al-Ascombining belownā, fi Sharhcombining dot below Asmā Allāh al-Hcombining dot belowusnā (ed. Fadlou A. Shehadi; Beirut: Dar El-Mashreq, 1982) 166 dot belownā, fi Sharhcombining dot below Asmā Allāh al-Hcombining dot belowusnā (ed. Fadlou A. Shehadi; Beirut: Dar El-Mashreq, 1982) 166
145. and compare Lazarus-Yafeh, Some Religious Aspects of Islam, 56-57 and n. 44, ibid., 148. 44, ibid., 148
146. See, for example, Abū 'Īsā Al-Warrāq's views in Thomas, Anti-Christian Polemic in Early Islam, 69
147. and especially Ibn Hcombining dot belowazm, Al-Faşl fi-Milal wa-l-Ahwā wa-l-Nihcombining dot belowal (2 vols.; 1321 [=1903]) 1. 53, where he also provides the Nestorian (water and oil) and Melkite (fire and metal) explanation of the incarnation. wa-l-Ahwā wa-l-Nihcombining dot belowal (2 vols.; n.p.: n.p., 1321 [=1903]) 1. 53, where he also provides the Nestorian (water and oil) and Melkite (fire and metal) explanation of the incarnation
148. Al-Ghazzālī, Al-Maqscombining dot belowad al-Aşrā, 167
149. Al-Ghazzālī, Ihcombining dot belowyā 'Ulum al-Dīn (Cairo: Ladjnat Nashr al-Thaqāfa al-Islāmiyya, 1956-57) 4. 2602
150. See Miguel Asin Palacios, Logia et Agrapha Domini Jesus apud Moslemicos Scriptores (Paris: Didot, 1916-17)