Bhakti in the early jain tradition: Understanding devotional religion in south asia

History of Religions

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 60-86

  Cort, John E ^a  

^a DENISON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 63849319553     PISSN: 00182710     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/463696     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. This terminology is that of Michael Carrithers from his "Jainism and Buddhism as Enduring Historical Streams," Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 21 (1990): 141-63
2. M. A. Dhaky, "The Jina Image and the Nirgrantha Agamic and Hymnic Imagery," in Shastric Traditions in Indian Arts, ed. Anna Libera Dallapiccola (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1989), p. 98
3. See, e.g., John Caiman, "Bhakti," in The Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 2:130: "The Sanskrit noun bhakti is derived from the verbal root bhaj, which means 'to share in' or 'to belong to,' as well as 'to worship.'"
4. For similar statements see, among others, John Stratton Hawley, "Bhakti," in Encyclopedia of Asian History, ed. Ainslie T. Embree (New York: Scribner, 1988), 1:154
5. John Stratton Hawley and Mark Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 4
6. A. K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 103-4, n. 2
7. and N. Shântâ, La voie jaina (Paris: O.E.I.L., 1985), p. 72
8. See also Karen Pechilis Prentiss, The Embodiment of Bhakti (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), esp. pp. 17-24, for a discussion of the history of the study of bhakti and problems involved with different translations of the term
9. For example, in Jain epistemology, samabhirudhanaya (etymology) is one of the seven nayas, or valid but partial viewpoints
10. John Algeo, "Semantic Change," in Research Guide on Language Change, ed. Edgar C. Polomé (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990), pp. 402-3. I thank Mark Hale for this reference
11. J. A. B. van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgita in the Mahābhārata (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 24
12. Friedhelm Hardy in Viraha-bhakti (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983) draws a similar distinction between intellectual bhakti and emotional bhakti. But in this dichotomy, he underestimates the role of emotion in intellectual bhakti
13. I am not, however, proposing for bhakti a third, more general level as a category in the extra-Indian comparative study of religion. While there is much to be said for employing bhakti as a generic category, I am sufficiently persuaded by the arguments advanced by Charles Hallisey ("Buddhist Devotion: Some Comments on Interpretive Habits in the Study of Indian Religions," unpublished manuscript) that I am hesitant to use bhakti in such third-level analysis. At the same time, I do not fully agree with him that the term "devotion" better serves our needs. See my discussion of the limitations of "devotion" as a comparative category (John E. Cort, "Singing the Glory of Asceticism: Devotion of Asceticism in Jainism," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, vol. 70 [2002], in press)
14. See John E. Cort, "Models of and Models for the Study of the Jains," Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 2 (1990): 42-71
15. and Kendall W. Folkert, "Jain Religious Life at Ancient Mathurā: The Heritage of Late Victorian Interpretation," in his Scripture and Community: Collected Essays on the Jains, ed. John E. Cort (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993), 95-112
16. Hermann Jacobi, "Introduction," in his trans, of Jaina Sūtras (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1884), l:xxi
17. Hermann Jacobi, "Zwei Jaina-Stotra," Indische Studien 14 (1876): 359-91
18. and "Die Çobhana Stutayas des Çobhana Muni," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen 32 (1878): 509-34
19. On the first of these, see John E. Cort, "Devotional Culture in Jainism: Mantunga and His Bhaktamara Stotra," in South Asian Religion in History and Culture: Festschrift for David Maclay Knipe, ed. James Blumenthal (in press)
20. Johannes, Klatt, "Dhanapâla's Rishabhapan̄caçika, " Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen 33 (1879): 445-77
21. Johann Georg Bühler, The Indian Sect of the Jainas, trans. Jas. Burgess (1903; reprint, Calcutta: Susil Gupta [India] Private, 1963), pp. 14-15
22. originally published in German as Über die Indische Secte der Jaina (Wien [Vienna]: Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissen-schaften, 1887)
23. See M. Whitney Kelting, Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001)
24. Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaini Path of Purification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979)
25. Walther Schubring, "Aus der Jinistischen Stotra-Literatur," in Jn̄ānamuktāvali, ed. Claus Vogel (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1959), pp. 194-220
26. and The Doctrine of the Jainas, trans. Wolfgang Buerlen (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1962)
27. For two further examples among many, see the following standard entries on the Jains: Colette Caillat, "Jainism," in The Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 7:510
28. and Carlo della Casa, "Jainism," in Historia Religionum, vol. 2, Religions of the Present, ed. C. Jouco Bleeker and Geo Widengren (Leiden: Brill, 1971), p. 362
29. Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 147. This lacuna is addressed in the forthcoming second edition of the book, in which Dundas includes a much more extensive discussion of Jain bhakti
30. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, The Meaning and End of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1963)
31. Dalsukh Malvania, "Bhaktimarga and Jainism," in his Jainism (Some Essays) (Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy, 1986), pp. 76-88
32. Sogani, p. 65
33. Malvania, "Bhaktimarga and Jainism," p. 78
34. This is most clearly seen in Shântâ's discussion of bhakti
35. On the study of Buddhists, see Gregory Schopen, "Archaeology and Protestant Presuppositions in the Study of Indian Buddhism," in his Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1997), pp. 1-22
36. The literature on the Hāthīgumphā inscription is extensive. The most recent work on it is Shashi Kant, The Hāthī gumphā Inscription of Khāravela and the Bhabru Edict of Aśoka a Critical Study (Delhi: Prints India, 1971)
37. Frederick Asher and Walter Spink ("Maurya Figural Sculpture Reconsidered," in Ars Orientalis 19 [1989]: 1-25) have recently argued for dating the Lohanipur torso to the Kusana period, roughly the second century c.E
38. rather than the earlier datings to the first century B.C.E. Similarly, H. Sarkar ("An Evaluation of Date of Tirthankara Images from Lohanipur," in Indian Studies: Essays Presented in Memory of Prof. Niharranjan Ray, ed. Amita Ray, H. Senyal, and S. C. Ray [Delhi: Caxton, 1985], pp. 39-42) has argued for a first-century-C.E. date
39. The most recent discussion of these pieces is found in Frederick Asher, The Art of Eastern India, 300-800 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980), pp. 17-18
40. Binoy Kumar Sahay, "The Jaina Art of Bihar (Up to Pre-Pala Period)," in Facets of Indian Civilization: Recent Perspectives (Essays in Honour of Prof. B. B. Lal), ed. Jagae Pati Joshi (New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 1997), pp. 397-402, provides an overview of the scholarship on both the Chausa bronzes and the Lohanipur torso
41. U. P. Shah, "An Early Bronze Image of Parsvanatha in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay," Prince of Wales Museum Bulletin 3 (1952-53): 63-64
42. For ancient Mathura as a whole, see the essays in Mathurā: The Cultural Heritage, ed. Doris Meth Srinivasan (New Delhi: Manohar, 1989). Sonya Rhie Quintanilla has recently restudied both the inscriptional and physical Jain materials from Mathura and provided a chronology; her work will be essential in all future studies of Mathura
43. See Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, "Emergence of the Stone Sculptural Tradition at Mathura: Mid-Second Century B.C.-First Century A.D." (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999)
44. and "Āyāgapatas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology," Artibus Asiae 60 (2000): 79-137
45. N. P. Joshi, "Early Jaina Icons from Mathura," in Srinivasan, ed., p. 332
46. Debala Mitra, "Mathurā," in Jaina Art and Architecture, ed. A. Ghosh (New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith, 1974), 1:51-52
47. and Heinrich Liiders, "A List of Brahmi Inscriptions from the Earliest Times to about a.d. 400 with the Exception of Those of Aśoka," appendix to Epigraphia lndica 10 (1912), inscriptions 93 and 99
48. Mitra, p. 52
49. and Lüders, "Brāhmī Inscriptions," inscriptions 78 and 102
50. Quintanilla, "Āyāgapatas," p. 90
51. Regarding Mathura as the place where the Buddha image originated, see J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, "New Evidence with Regard to the Origin of the Buddha Image," in South Asian Archaeology 1979, ed. Herbert Härtel (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1981), pp. 377-400
52. Regarding the quantity of extant images, see J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, The "Scythian" Period (Leiden: Brill, 1949), p. 149
53. Joshi, p. 332
54. Heinrich Lüders, Mathurā Inscriptions, ed. Klaus Janert (Göttingen: van den Hoeck & Ruprecht, 1961), pp. 45-46, and "Brāhmī Inscriptions," inscriptions 22 and 53
55. For texts, translation, and discussion, see Parinyās Kalyānvijaygani, Śri Jinpūjā Vidhi-Sangrah, ed. Pt. Śobhācandra Bhārill (Jālor: Śrī Kalyānvijay Śāstra-Saṅgrah-Samiti, 1966), pp. 13-17
56. and his Nāyādhammakahāo: Das sechste Anga des Jaina-Siddhanta (Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literature, 1978)
57. For contemporary descriptions of the pūja, see Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996)
58. John E. Cort, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 61-99
59. and Caroline Humphrey and James Laidlaw, The Archetypal Actions of Ritual: A Theory of Ritual Illustrated by the Jain Rite of Worship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)
60. For more information on caitya-vandana, see Cort, Jains in the World, pp. 64-71
61. For a summary of the opinions on the date of Vimalasūri, see V. M. Kulkarni, The Story of Rāma in Jain Literature (Ahmedabad: Saraswati Pustak Bhandar, 1990), pp. 51-59
62. Hermann Jacobi, ed., Paümacariya of Vimalasūri, 2d ed., rev. by Muni Punyavijay, with Hindi trans, by Shantilal M. Vora (Varanasi: Prakrit Text Society, 1962), pp. 259-61
63. Ernst Leumann, Übersicht über die Āvaśyaka- Literatur, ed. Walther Schubring (Hamburg: Friedrichsen, DeGruyter, 1934)
64. See in particular Nalini Balbir's magisterial Introduction générale et Inductions, vol. 1 of Āvaśyaka-Studien (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1993)
65. Her focus, however, is almost exclusively with the ways in which the Āvaśyaka literature contributes to our knowledge of the Jain and Indian narrative traditions. This is seen clearly in her "Stories from the Āvaśyaka Commentaries," in The Clever Adultress and Other Stories, ed. Phyllis Granoff (Oakville: Mosaic, 1990), pp. 17-74
66. See also two studies by Klaus Bruhn: "Āvaśyaka Studies I," in Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus: Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf, ed. Klaus Bruhn and Albrecht Wezler (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1981), pp. 11-49
67. and "Five Vows and Six Avashyakas the Fundamentals of Jaina Ethics," Here-Now4U Online Magazine (1997-2000), available on-line at http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/contents.html
68. See Leumann for a detailed discussion of the extensive textual parallels
69. See Bruhn, "Āvaśyaka Studies I," for the five textual levels, in both Prakrit and Sanskrit, that are embedded in the Āvaśyaka literature (or, as Bruhn terms it, the "Āvaśyaka-cluster"). These levels are generally studied by Jain mendicants as a single text
70. On the date of Kundakunda, see W. J. Johnson, Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umasvati and Kundakunda (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995), pp. 91-97
71. M. A. Dhaky has recently argued for a much later date for Kundakunda, the second half of the eighth century C.E. ("The Date of Kundakundā cārya," in Pt. Dalsukh Bhai Mahania Felicitation Volume, ed. M. A. Dhaky and Sagarmal Jain, Aspects of Jainology, vol. 3 [Varanasi: P. V. Research Institute, 1991], 1:187-206). I find his arguments unconvincing and prefer to stick to the earlier dates
72. This is quoted in Jinendra Varnī, Jainendra Siddhānta Kośa, 2d ed. (Delhi: Bhāratīya Jn̄ānpīth, 1985), 1:279, as verse 116. In the edition of the text by Kailāś candra Śāstri (Bhagavati Ārādhanā of Ācārya Śri Śivārya with the Sanskrit Tikā Vijayodaya ofAparājitasūri, ed. and Hindi trans, by Pandit Kailāścandra Śāstri [Sholapur: Jain Samskrti Samraksaka Saṅgha, 1978]) it occurs as verse 118.
73. The latest discussions of the date and authorship of the Tattvārtha Sūtra and its Bhāsya are the following: M. A. Dhaky, "Umāsvāti in Epigraphical and Literary Tradition," in Śrī Nāgābhinandanam: Dr. M. S. Nagaraja Rao Festschrift, ed. L. K. Srinivasan and S. Na-garaju (Bangalore: Dr. M. S. Nagaraja Rao Felicitation Committee, 1995), pp. 505-22
74. and Johnson, pp. 46-47
75. U. P. Shah, Jaina-Rūpa-Mandana (New Delhi: Abhinav, 1987), 1:82
76. Suzuko Ohira, A Study of the Bhagavatlsutra: A Chronological Analysis (Ahmedabad: Prakrit Text Society, 1994), pp. 204-7
77. Maruti Nandan Pasād Tivārī, Jain Pratimā Vijn̄iān (Varanasī: Pārśvanāth Vidyāśram Śodh Saṅsthān, 1981), p. 30
78. See K. K. Dixit, Jaina Ontology, Lalbhai Delpatbhai Series no. 31 (Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1971), p. 8
79. Shah, p. 82
80. My translation of Āvassaya Sutta 2. For the Prakrit text, see Bhadrabāhusvāmī, Āvaiya-kaniryukti [Ā vassayanijjutti], ed. Ācārya Ānandāsagarasūri (Bombay: Āgamodaya Samiti, 1916; reprint, Bombay: Śrī Bherulāl Kanaiyālāl Kothārī Dhārmik Trast, 1982), pp. 3-13
81. and R. Williams, Jaina Yoga: A Study of the Mediaeval Śravākācāras (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 195-96
82. Walther Schubring, "Kundakunda echt und unecht," Zeitschrift der Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 107 (1957): 557-74
83. The text is in Pt. Kailāścandra Śāstrī, ed. Prābhrta Sahgraha ofKundakunda (includes Sanskrit gloss and Hindi trans.) (Sholapur: Jain Samskrti Samraksaka Saṅgha, 1960), p. 154
84. Pt. Parinālāl Sonī and Pt. Gajādharalāl Śrīlāl, ed's., Mūlācāra of Vattakera (with Sanskrit Tikā of Vasunandi) (Bombay: Manikacandra Digambara Jainagranthamālāsamiti, 1921-24), 1:418
85. and Vattakera, Mūlācāra, ed. Siddhāntā cārya Pt. Kailāścandra Śāstrī, Pt. Jaganmohānlāl Śāstri, and Pt. Pannālāl Jain Sāhityācārya, with Sanskrit Ācāravrtti of Vasunandi and Hindi trans, by Āryikā Jn̄ānmati (Delhi: Bhāratīya Jn̄ānapitha, 1984-86)
86. Respectively, me pasiyantu, āroggabohilāham samāhivaram uttamam dentu, and sid-dhim mama disantu
87. These are the three jewels that conjoined make up the Jain path to liberation, the moksamārga
88. Jarl Charpentier, ed., Uttarādhyayanasūtra [Uttarajjhaya Sutta] (Uppsala: Appelbergs Boktryckeri, 1921-22), p. 200
89. My translation of Niyamasāra 134-36. For Prakrit text, see Uggar Sain, ed., Niyamasāra of Kundakunda (with Sanskrit gloss and English trans.) (Lucknow: Central Jaina Publishing House, 1931), p. 60
90. See Bansidhar Bhatt, "Vyavahara-naya and Niścaya-naya in Kundakunda's Works," in XVIII. Deutscher Orientalistentag, vom I. bis 5., Oktober 1972 in Lübeck, Vorträge, ed. Wolfgang Voigt, Zeitschrift der Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, suppl. 2 (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1974), pp. 279-91
91. see also pp. 91-94 on Kundakunda and the subsequent Digambara mystical tradition. Regarding the condemnation by the Śvetāmbaras, see Bhatt, "Vyavahāra-naya and Niścaya-naya in Kundakunda's Works," p. 284, n. 25
92. See Mahopādhyāya Vinaya Sāgar, ed. (and Hindi trans.), Kalpasūtra, English trans. Mukund Lath, 2d ed. (Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati, 1984), pp. 28-33
93. Upadhye, p. xxviii
94. See Williams, pp. 187-88
95. The Śvetāmbara and Digambara texts of the Tattvārtha Sūtra differ slightly. For the Śvetāmbara version, see K. P. Mody, ed., Tattvārtha Sūtra and Sanskrit "Svabhāsya " of Umāsvāti (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1903-5)
96. for the Digambara version, see J. L. Jaini, ed. and English trans., Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāmi (Arrah: Central Jaina Publishing House, 1920)
97. For a recent synthetic translation, see Nathmal Tatia, trans., That Which Is: Tattvārtha Sūtra (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1994). It is worth noting that this passage occurs immediately preceding mention of the āvaśyakas in a discussion of the causes of the arising of the highly auspicious karma that causes a soul to become a Tirthaṅkara
98. A similar argument can be made for the place of devotional practices and image worship in the early Buddhist tradition. See Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1932), p. 31
99. Of course, all historical interpretation involves a degree of speculation, or, in the words of A. L. Basham, a "controlled imagination" (The Wonder That Was India [New York: Grove, 1954], p. 44)
100. On this, see Ramanujan, pp. 117-26
101. and Glenn Yocum, "Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 41 (1973): 3-17
102. and Hymns to the Dancing Śiva (Columbia, Mo.: South Asia Books, 1982), pp. 187-94
103. Basham, p. 330
104. For the Jain stress on lineage as underlying authority, see John E. Cort, "The Śvetām-bar Mūrtipūjak Jain Mendicant," Man, n.s., 26 (1991): 549-69
105. and Paul Dundas, "The Marginal Monk and the True Tirtha," in Jain Studies in Honour of Jozef Deleu, ed. Rudy Smet and Kenji Watanabe (Tokyo: Hon-no-tomosha, 1993), pp. 237-59
106. Technically speaking, it is inaccurate to describe the Jinas as the "founders" of the lineage, as the credit for founding the mendicant lineages goes not to the Jinas but to their ganadharas, or "lineage leaders." In the case of Mahāvīra, the twenty-fourth and last Jina, the credit for establishing the mendicant lineage therefore goes to Sudharmā Svāmī (see Cort, "The Śvetāmbar Mūrtipūjak Jain Mendicant," p. 666). Nonetheless, the Jinas are credited with establishing (or, more correctly, reestablishing) the fourfold congregation of male and female mendicants, laymen, and laywomen. It is in this context that they are known as "Tirthankaras," "founders of the [four] tirthas," tirtha here referring to the four wings of the total congregation. Dayal (p. 33) has similarly argued that bhakti developed in the Buddhist tradition from devotion to the person of the Buddha
107. See Iravatham Mahadevan, "Corpus of Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions," in Seminar on Inscriptions, ed. R. Nagaswamy (Madras: Books [India] Private, 1968), pp. 57-73
108. A. Ekam-baranathan and C. K. Sivaprakasam, Jaina Inscriptions in Tamilnadu (A Topographical List) (Madras: Research Foundation for Jainology, 1987)
109. and A. Ekambaranathan and M. Satyabhama, "Holy Abodes of the Sramanas," Jain Journal 24 (1989): 3-14
110. R. Champalakshmi, "South India," in Jaina Art and Architecture, ed. A. Ghosh (New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith, 1974), 1:93
111. See Wilhelm Geiger, trans., The Mahāvamsa, or the Great Chronicle of Ceylon (London: Pali Text Society, 1912; reprint, London: Luzac, 1964)
112. Leslie C. Orr, Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 23, 202, n. 38
113. quoting T. N. Subramaniam, "Pallankovil Jaina Copper-Plate Grant of Early Pallava Period," Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India (1958-59): 41-83
114. See also A. Chakra-varti, Jaina Literature in Tamil (New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanapitha, 1974), pp. 143-46
115. and Ekambaranathan and Sivaprakasam, pp. 426-27
116. In addition to the evidence I have presented above concerning bhakti in mendicant practice, see also the discussion of Jain bhakti and temple worship in the very earliest Tamil texts in S. N. Kandaswamy, "Jainistic and Buddhistic Literature," in Literary Heritage of the Tamils, ed. S. V. Subramanian and N. Ghadigachalam (Madras: International Institute of Tamil Studies, 1981), pp. 247-66
117. Orr also notes that extant evidence concerning the modes of worship of images indicates that they were "virtually identical" (p. 23) among Jains, Vaisnavas, and Saivas and that all three of these groups along with the Buddhists "shared a common religious culture" (p. 25). She borrows this latter terminology from Richard H. Davis, "The Story of the Disappearing Jains: Retelling the Saiva-Jain Encounter in Medieval South India," in Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, ed. John E. Cort (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998), pp. 213-24
118. and "Śramanas against the Tamil Way: Jains as Others in Tamil Śaiva Literature," in Cort, ed., pp. 163-85
119. Peterson, Poems to Śiva, p. 10, and "Śramanas against the Tamil Way."
120. A point also made by Davis
121. On the former, see Ravīndra Kumār Jaīn, Kavivar Banārsidas (Delhi: Bhāratīya Jn̄ān-pīth Prakāśan, 1966)
122. and Mukund Lath, trans., Ardhakathanaka: Haifa Tale (Jaipur: Ra-jasthan Prakrit Bharati Sansthan, 1981)
123. On the latter, see John E. Cort, "Dyānatrāy: An Eighteenth Century Digambar Mystical Poet," in Essays in Jaina Philosophy and Religion, ed. Marek Mejor and Piotr Balcerowicz (Warsaw: Instytut Orientalistyczny Uniwersytet Warszawski; Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002)