Bakhtin contra Marx and Lenin: A polyphonic approach to Russia's labor and revolutionary movements

Russian History

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 387-417

  Melancon, Michael ^a   Pate, Alice ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 63849309945     PISSN: 0094288X     EISSN: 18763316     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/187633104X00098     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. A non-exhaustive overview of Russian labor historiography of the years the reader. Studies such as Reginald Zelnik Petersburg 1855-1870 between 1860 and 1918 may aid the reader. Studies such as Reginald Zelnik, Labor and Society in Tsarist Russia: The Factory Workers of St. Petersburg 1855-1870 (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1971)
2. his Law and Disorder on the Narova River: The Kreenholm Strike of 1872 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995); (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995)
3. and Robert Eugene Johnsoneasant and Proletarian: The Working Class of Nineteenth Century significant party involvement in the workers' movement, although Johnson explicitly distances his findings from the expectations of Marxist oriented analysis of working class formation Moscow in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1979), investigate periods prior to significant party involvement in the workers' movement, although Johnson explicitly distances his findings from the expectations of Marxist oriented analysis of working class formation
4. Early studies of the inter-relationship between workers and Russian Social Democracy, such as Leopold Haimson, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1955); Social Democracy, such as Leopold Haimson, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1955)
5. John Keep, The Rise of Social-Democracy in Russia (Oxford: Oxford Univ Press, 1963)
6. Richard Pipes, Social Democracy and the St. Petersburg Labor Movement 1885-1897 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1963)
7. Allan Wildman, The Making of a Workers' Revolution: Russian Social-Democracy, 1891-1903 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967)
8. Jeremiah Schneiderman, Sergei Zubatov and Revolutionary Marxism: The Class in Tsarist Russia share assumptions about Social Democracy's exclusive status within the Russian workers' movement Struggle for the Working Class in Tsarist Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1970), although of vastly differing approaches, share assumptions about Social Democracy's exclusive status within the Russian workers' movement
9. This outlook also characterizes a series of studies of the last three decades, including: Rose Glickman, Russian Factory Women, Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1984); decades, including: Rose Glickman, Russian Factory Women, Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1984)
10. Victoria Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion: Workers' Politics and Organization and Moscow, 1900-1914 in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900-1914 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1983)
11. Gerald D. Surh, 1905 in St. Petersburg: Labor, Society, and Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1989)
12. Laura Engelstein, Moscow, 1905: Working Class Organization and Political Conflict (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1982)
13. Robert B. McKean, St. Petersburg between the Revolutions: Workers and 1907-February 1917 Revolutionaries, June 1907-February 1917 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1990)
14. Daniel Kaiser, ed., The Workers' Revolution in Russia, 1917: The View From Below (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987)
15. Diane Koenker, W. Rosenberg, Strikes and Revolution in Russia, 1917 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1989)
16. S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd: Revolution in the Factories 1917-1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983)
17. and Gennady Shkliarevsky, Labor in the Russian Revolution: Factory Committees and Trade Unions, 1917-1918 (New York: St. Martins' Press, 1993). Although Social Democracy is not mentioned in their titles, these and other studies of Russian labor, with very few exceptions, focus heavily on Social Democrats. These studies' bibliographies also fail to include non-SD worker-oriented publications such as those listed in footnote 19 below, a selective use of sources that inevitably yields tendentious results. Committees and Trade Unions, 1917-1918 (New York: St. Martins' Press, 1993). Although Social Democracy is not mentioned in their titles, these and other studies of Russian labor, with very few exceptions, focus heavily on Social Democrats. These studies' bibliographies also fail to include non-SD worker-oriented publications such as those listed in footnote 19 below, a selective use of sources that inevitably yields tendentious results
18. Examples of this customary decontextualization are the otherwise superb E. N. Burdzhalov, Russia's Second Revolution: The February 1917 Uprising in Petrograd (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1987); E. N. Burdzhalov, Russia's Second Revolution: The February 1917 Uprising in Petrograd (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1987)
19. William H. Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 1917-21, vol. 1 (New York Macmillan, 1935)
20. T. Hasegawa, February Revolution: Petrograd 1917 (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1981)
21. Alexander Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power: Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976)
22. and his Prelude to Revolution: Petrograd Bolsheviks and the July 1917 Uprising (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1968). Uprising (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1968)
23. For all their merits, studies such as G. Swain, Russian Social Democracy and the Legal Labor Movement, 1906-1914 (London: and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1983)
24. McKean, St. Petersburg Between the Revolutions
25. and Bonnell, Roots of Rebellionerpetuate (and exemplify) significant misconceptions
26. The unremitting focus of Robert C. Williams, The Other Bolsheviks: Lenin and his Critics, 1904-1914 (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1986), on pre-1917 Bolshevik leaders sheds little light on activism inside Russia. and his Critics, 1904-1914 (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1986), on pre-1917 Bolshevik leaders sheds little light on activism inside Russia
27. Although Robert V. Daniels, Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1960 Opposition in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1960)
28. and Leonard Schapiro, Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political State Leninism in the construction of totalitarian models, almost all commentaries oversimplify these questions to the point of obfuscation, especially as regards rank and file activism Opposition in the Soviet State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1977), most fully equate Bolshevism and Leninism in the construction of totalitarian models, almost all commentaries oversimplify these questions to the point of obfuscation, especially as regards rank and file activism
29. Interpretations of Menshevism are in Haimson, Russian Marxists and his Making of Three Revolutionaries: Voices from the Menshevik Past (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987); Making of Three Revolutionaries: Voices from the Menshevik Past (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987)
30. Zhiva Galili y Garcia, Menshevik Leaders in the Russian Revolution Strategies in the Russian Revolution Social and Political Strategies in the Russian Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1989)
31. Vladimir Brovkin, Mensheviks after October: Socialist Opposition and the Bolshevik Dictatorship Rise of the Bolshevik Dictatorship (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1987)
32. Leon Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution New York: Anchor, 1980)
33. David Lane, The Roots of Russian Communism (Assen: Von Gorcum, 1969)
34. and R. Carter Elwood, Russian Social Democracy in the Underground: A Ukraine, 1907-1914 Study of the RSDRP in ... Ukraine, 1907-1914 (Assen: Von Gorcum, 1974)
35. For examples of this new approach, see Michael Melancon and Alice Pate New Labor History: Worker Identity and Experience in Russia, 1840-1918, Bloomington, IN: Slavica Publishers, 2002 eds., New Labor History: Worker Identity and Experience in Russia, 1840-1918, (Bloomington, IN: Slavica Publishers, 2002)
36. In cases where we use Bakhtin quotes as subtitle headings, we will not cite the source when the full quotation appears elsewhere in the body of the text with a citation, as in this case. Where the subtitle quote does not appear elsewhere in the text, a citation will be provided cite the source when the full quotation appears elsewhere in the body of the text with a citation, as in this case. Where the subtitle quote does not appear elsewhere in the text, a citation will be provided
37. M. Bakhtin's main corpus of work focuses on dialogic speech (see note 11 below for a listing). His insights into the carnival, outlined in his Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1984), below for a listing). His insights into the carnival, outlined in his Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1984)
38. receive attention in Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early France (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1975)p. 103, 119, 122-23; France (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1975)p. 103, 119, 122-23
39. Dominick LaCapra, Rethinking Intellectual History: Texts, Contexts Language (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1983)p. 291-324
40. Fredric Jameson, The Political Conscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1981)p. 84, 108, 202, 285
41. and Aileen Kelly, Views from the Other Shore: Essays on Herzen, Chekhov and Bakhtin (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1999)
42. Mark W. Steinberg, "Culturally Speaking: Finding a commons between post-structuralism and the Thompsonian perspective, Social History, 21, no. 2 (May 1996), 193-214, utilizes Bakhtinian dialogic modes to explicate aspects of British labor history (as yet, the first and only example of Bakhtinian labor analysis). Steinberg's approach diverges sharply from this study in recruiting Bakhtin's circle for cultural Marxism, an area of contestation in Bakhtinian studies. post-structuralism and the Thompsonian perspective," Social History, 21, no. 2 (May 1996), 193-214, utilizes Bakhtinian dialogic modes to explicate aspects of British labor history (as yet, the first and only example of Bakhtinian labor analysis). Steinberg's approach diverges sharply from this study in recruiting "Bakhtin's circle" for cultural Marxism, an area of contestation in Bakhtinian studies
43. Analysis of debate about the accuracy of Bakhtin's interpretation of Dostoevsky is in Caryl Emerson, The First Hundred Years of Mikhail Bakhtin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1997)p. 130-34. Even were it partially inspired by a misinterpretation of Dostoevsky as novelist, Bakhtin's polyphonic theory is still of interest in its own right. Dostoevsky is in Caryl Emerson, The First Hundred Years of Mikhail Bakhtin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1997)p. 130-34. Even were it partially inspired by a misinterpretation of Dostoevsky as novelist, Bakhtin's polyphonic theory is still of interest in its own right
44. M. M. Bakhtinroblems of Dostoevsky's Poetics (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1984). 6
45. Among Bakhtin's works utilized here are: M. M. Bakhtin, Toward a Philosophy of the Act (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1993); Philosophy of the Act (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1993)
46. Speech Genres & Other Late Essays (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press 1986)
47. The Dialogic Imagination (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1981)
48. and Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. Useful commentary about or selections from Bakhtin's works can be found in the following: Bakhtin: Essays and Dialogues on His Work, ed. by Gary Saul Morson (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986); selections from Bakhtin's works can be found in the following: Bakhtin: Essays and Dialogues on His Work, ed. by Gary Saul Morson (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986)
49. Bakhtinian Thought: an Introductory Reader, ed. by Simon Dentith (New York: Routledge, 1995)
50. Bakhtin in Contexts: Across the Disciplines, ed. by Amy Mandelker (Evanston, IL: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1995)
51. The Bakhtin Reader: Selected Writings of Bakhtin, Medvedev, Voloshinov ed. by Pam Morris (New York: Arnold, 1994)
52. David Danow, The Thought of Mikhail Bakhtin: From Word to Culture (New York: St. Martins' Press, 1991)
53. Michael Holquist, Dialogism: Bakhtin and His World (London; Routledge 1990)
54. Gary Saul Morson & Caryl Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990)
55. Tzvetan Todorov, Mikhail Bakhtin. The Dialogical Principle (Minneapolis Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1984)
56. Sue Vice, Introducing Bakhtin (New York: Manchester Univ. Press, 1997)
57. and Emerson, The First Hundred Years
58. For scintillating interviews with Bakhtin two years (1973) before his death, Besedy V. D. Duvakina s M. M. Bakhtinym (Moscow: Izdanie gruppy Progress, 1996). death, see Besedy V. D. Duvakina s M. M. Bakhtinym (Moscow: Izdanie gruppy "Progress," 1996)
59. Bakhtin, Speech Genres. 63
60. One commentator has noted that the philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer employs an approach quite different from those presented by some of the more fashionable post-structuralist and post-modernist authors. He does not language as a self-referring system in which the world is but an internal creation of language. Language ... is tempered by the things themselves and language unfolds the structure of things ... not the structure of language: Alan How, The Habermas-Gadamer Debate and the Nature of the Social (Aldershot UK: Avebury, 1995)p. 96-97. Bakhtin's implicit critique of certain tendencies of linguistic analysis is similar to but even more radical than Gadamer's. an approach "quite different from those presented by some of the more fashionable post-structuralist and post-modernist authors. He does not see language as a self-referring system in which the world is but an internal creation of language. Language ... is tempered by the things themselves" and "language unfolds the structure of things ... not the structure of language": Alan How, The Habermas-Gadamer Debate and the Nature of the Social (Aldershot UK: Avebury, 1995)p. 96-97. Bakhtin's implicit critique of certain tendencies of linguistic analysis is similar to but even more radical than Gadamer's
61. Quoted in Danow, Thought of Mikhail Bakhtin. 21
62. See discussion in Alice K. Pate, "The Liquidationist Controversy Social Democracy and the Quest for Unity, in Melancon and Pate, New Labor Historyp. 95-122. Russian Social Democracy and the Quest for Unity," in Melancon and Pate, New Labor Historyp. 95-122
63. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination. 293
64. Analysis of SR involvement in the workers' movement can be found in Revolution of 1905-07 York: St. Martins' Press Christopher Rice Russian Workers and the Socialist-Revolutionary Party through the Revolution of 1905-07 (New York: St. Martins' Press 1988)
65. Michael Melancon: "The Socialist-Revolutionaries from 1902 to 1907 Party Peasant and Workers' Party," Russian History, 12, no. 1 (Spring 1985), 247
66. "'Stormy Petrels': The Socialist Revolutionaries in Russia's Labor Organizations, 1905-1914 Organizations, 1905-1914," The Carl Beck Papers, no. 703 (June 1988)
67. "Athens or Babylon? The Birth of the Socialist Revolutionary and Democratic Parties in Saratov, 1890-1905 Social Democratic Parties in Saratov, 1890-1905," in Rex Wade and Scott Seregny, eds.olitics and Society in Provincial Russia: Saratov, 1590-1917 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press]], 1989)p. 73-112
68. "'Marching Together!': Left Bloc Activities in the Russian Movement, 1900 to February 1917 Revolutionary Movement, 1900 to February 1917," Slavic Review, 49, no. 2 (Summer 1990), 239-52
69. and The Socialist-Revolutionaries and the Russian Anti-War Movement 1914-1917 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1990). 1914-1917 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1990)
70. Between 1894 and 1918 the SRs issued numerous worker-oriented publications such as Russkii Rabochii (Russian Worker), monthly publication of the Union of SRsaris, Geneva, 1894-1899; publications such as Russkii Rabochii (Russian Worker), monthly publication of the Union of SRsaris, Geneva, 1894-1899
71. Svoboda, Zhurnal dlia rabochikh (Liberation, Journal for workers) publication of the SR group, Geneva, 1901-1902
72. Trud, rabochaia gazeta (Labor, a workers' paper), St. Petersburg 1906-1908
73. Golos rabochego (Worker's Voice), Moscow, 1906
74. Molot (Hammer), Baku, 1906
75. Znamia truda (Banner of Labor), Central organ of the PSRaris 1907-1914
76. Trudovoi golos (Voice of labor), Baku newspaper, 1909-1910
77. Rabochii (Worker)ublication of the PSRaris, 1911-1912
78. Trudovoi golos (Voice of Labor), Mysl' truda (Idea of Labor), Zhivaia mysl' truda (Living Idea of Labor)etrograd SR workers' newspapers, St. Petersburg, 1913-1914; mysl' truda (Living Idea of Labor)etrograd SR workers' newspapers, St. Petersburg, 1913-1914
79. Trud (Labor), Moscow SR daily, 1917
80. Znamia truda (Banner of labor), Left SR dailyetrograd, Moscow 1917-1918; and so forth. 1917-1918; and so forth
81. For a listing of SR publications, including numerous worker-oriented ones, during 1905-07rilozhenie 1 (Publications of the PSR) in M. I. Leonovartiia sotsialistov-revoliutsionerov v 1905-1907 gg. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1997)p. 407-55. ones, during 1905-07, see Prilozhenie 1 (Publications of the PSR) in M. I. Leonovartiia sotsialistov-revoliutsionerov v 1905-1907 gg. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1997)p. 407-55
82. Many of the studies listed in note 1 display the characteristics under discussion discussion
83. This approach also ignores non-political aspects of worker identities For analysis of workers and religionage Herrlinger, Orthodoxy and the Experience of Factory Life in St. Petersburg, 1881-1905, and Sergei Firsov, Workers and the Orthodox Church in Early Twentieth Century Russia, Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 35-76 For analysis of workers and religion, see Page Herrlinger, "Orthodoxy and the Experience of Factory Life in St. Petersburg, 1881-1905," and Sergei Firsov, "Workers and the Orthodox Church in Early Twentieth Century Russia," Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 35-76
84. For a discussion of worker perception of self, see Mark Steinberg Russia "Proletarian Knowledges of Self: Worker-Poets in Finde-Siècle Russia," New Labor Historyp. 123-60
85. In a 1986 discussion of "revisionism" as regards analysis of history, Sheila Fitzpatrick noted the popularity of Marxist approaches, among social historians and warned against the perils of relying on a framework, set by Soviet Marxist historiography, for] a field in which an extensive Soviet scholarly literature already exists; Afterward: Revisionism Revisited, Russian Review, 45, no. 4 1986, 410. Unfortunately, this warning went unheeded in the social history of the Russian revolutions Soviet-era history, Sheila Fitzpatrick noted the popularity of "Marxist approaches ... among social historians" and warned against the perils of relying on a "framework ... set by Soviet Marxist historiography ... [for] a field in which an extensive Soviet scholarly literature already exists"; see "Afterward: Revisionism Revisited," Russian Review, 45, no. 4 (1986), 410. Unfortunately, this warning went unheeded in the social history of the Russian revolutions
86. For an alternative version, see Michael Melancon, "'Into the Hands Factory Committees,': The Petrograd Factory Committee Movement and Discourses, February to June 1917, in Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 177-206. of the Factory Committees,': The Petrograd Factory Committee Movement and Discourses, February to June 1917," in Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 177-206
87. For realistic evaluations of the Bolsheviks' arduous struggle to attain significant influence in the Vyborg district during 1917, consult I. M. Gordienko, Iz boevogo proshlogo (Moscow: Gos. izd. polit. lit. 1957)p. 70, 91; significant influence in the Vyborg district during 1917, consult I. M. Gordienko, Iz boevogo proshlogo (Moscow: Gos. izd. polit. lit. 1957)p. 70, 91
88. A. M. Andreev, Sovety rabochikh i soldatskikh deputatov nakanune oktiabria (Moscow: Nauka, 1967)p. 50, 202
89. and Pervyi legal'nyi Petrogradskii komitet bol'shevikov v 1917 (Moscow & Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1927)p. 113, 116-17. & Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1927)p. 113, 116-17
90. For a discussion of this issue, see Melancon, "Stormy Petrels," pp. 2-3
91. Melancon, "Stormy Petrels," passim
92. V. Sviatlovskii, "Druzia i vragi professional'nogo dvizheniia," Krasnaia letopis', no. 21 (1923). 212
93. V.I. Lenin, Sochineniia, 4th ed., 40 vols. (Moscow: Gos. izd. polit. lit 1941-45), 12: 47
94. L. Martov, "Sotsial-Demokratiia 1905-1907 gg.," in L. Martov N. Potresov, eds., Obshchestvennoe dvizhenie v Rossii v nachale XX-go veka, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg: Tip. T-va Obshchetsvennaia pol'za, 1909-14), 3: 632. G. Maslov and N. Potresov, eds., Obshchestvennoe dvizhenie v Rossii v nachale XX-go veka, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg: Tip. T-va "Obshchetsvennaia pol'za," 1909-14), 3: 632
95. Pate, "Liquidationist Controversy," in Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 116-21
96. V. Kaiurov, "Rabochee dvizhenie v Pitere (1914)," Proletarskaia Revoliutsiia, no. 44 (1925). 195, comments on the phenomenon in the capital. Melancon, Marching Together. Revoliutsiia, no. 44 (1925). 195, comments on the phenomenon in the capital. See also Melancon, "Marching Together."
97. P. Leiberov, "O vozniknovenii revoliutsionnoi situatsii v Rossii v pervoi mirovoi voiny (iiul'-sentiabr' 1915 g., Istoriiia SSSR, no. 6 (1964). 53, has data on the growth of SR influence; gody pervoi mirovoi voiny (iiul'-sentiabr' 1915 g.," Istoriiia SSSR, no. 6 (1964). 53, has data on the growth of SR influence
98. for analysis of relative party influences in Petrograd and elsewhere, see Melancon, The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Russian Anti-War Movement, 1914-1917 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1990). M. Melancon, The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Russian Anti-War Movement, 1914-1917 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1990)
99. Koenker, Moscow Workers and the 1917 Revolutionp. 187-95, indicates SR Revolution. Comments about Petrograd, Baku, Kiev and elsewhere represent Melancon's research in a wide range of archival and other primary sources popularity among Moscow workers after the February Revolution. Comments about Petrograd, Baku, Kiev and elsewhere represent Melancon's research in a wide range of archival and other primary sources
100. For indications of SR involvement in the Smolensk workers' movement, see Dynamics of Labor Conflict in 1917 Michael C. Hickey, "Big Strike in a Small City: The Smolensk Metalworkers' Strike and Dynamics of Labor Conflict in 1917," in Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 207-32
101. Bakhtinroblems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. 43
102. "Otkritoe pis'mo," Golos sotsial-demokrata, 19/20 (Jan.-Febr 23-24. 1910)p. 23-24
103. For an extended analysis of liquidationism which studies this rhetoric Petersburg Metal-workers' Union, 1906-1914 PhD Dissertation, Ohio State Univ see Alice Pate, "Liquidationism and Failure of Unity: Russian Social Democracy and the St. Petersburg Metal-workers' Union, 1906-1914," PhD Dissertation, Ohio State Univ., 1995
104. In a very recent discussion of Russian nationhood during 1914, Sanborn writes, The nation, is an arena where multiple subjectivities and multiple behavoirs interact within certain parameters, according to, a set of governing ideals, and counterposes this (i.eolyphonic) definition to more customary unitary and imposed (i.e, monologic) definitions; Josh Sanborn, The Mobilization of 1914 and the Question of the Russian Nation, Slavic Review, 59, no. 2 (Summer 2000, 280. This edges intriguingly close to a Bakhtinian analysis of national identityies, Although it is always possible and sometimes preferable to describe historical phenomena without overt theoretical imprimatur, dialogic analysis' conceptual appropriateness for Sanborn's formulation suggests potential broad historiographical applications for Bakhtin's theories writes, "The nation ... is an arena where multiple subjectivities and multiple behavoirs interact within certain parameters ... according to ... a set of governing ideals," and counterposes this (i.e.olyphonic) definition to more customary unitary and imposed (i.e., monologic) definitions; Josh Sanborn, "The Mobilization of 1914 and the Question of the Russian Nation," Slavic Review, 59, no. 2 (Summer 2000), 280. This edges intriguingly close to a Bakhtinian analysis of national identity(ies). Although it is always possible and sometimes preferable to describe historical phenomena without overt theoretical imprimatur, dialogic analysis' conceptual appropriateness for Sanborn's formulation suggests potential broad historiographical applications for Bakhtin's theories
105. May Day leaflets are in the Special Collections of the Gosudarstvennaia obshchestvenno-politicheskaia biblioteka (Moscow, formerly the library of the central party archive, Alice Pate, Russian Revolutionary Worker Voices: May Day Pamphlets, 1894-1914 AAASS 1998 National Conference, Boca Raton obshchestvenno-politicheskaia biblioteka (Moscow) (formerly the library of the central party archive). Alice Pate, "Russian Revolutionary Worker Voices: May Day Pamphlets, 1894-1914" (AAASS 1998 National Conference, Boca Raton)
106. In a roundtable discussion of worker-intelligentsia activist contacts during the early populist era (1870s-1880s, Deborah Pearl recently noted the reciprocal interaction between the two elements AAASS, 1999 National Conference, St. Louis: Across the Revolutionary Divide: Revolutionary Culture, 1870-1930 during the early populist era (1870s-1880s), Deborah Pearl recently noted the reciprocal interaction between the two elements (AAASS, 1999 National Conference, St. Louis: "Across the Revolutionary Divide: Revolutionary Culture, 1870-1930")
107. Michael Melancon, "The Left SRs in the October Revolution," in V. Brovkin, ed., The Bolsheviks in Soviet Society (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1997)p. 72-75
108. This incident is discussed, with citations, in Sherron Acker, "The Maximalists, an unpublished paper that analyzes SR-Maximalist views and tactics Maximalists," an unpublished paper that analyzes SR-Maximalist views and tactics
109. Delo naroda, no. 1, March 15, 1917, no. 6, March 21, 1917
110. Zemlia i Volta, no. 1, March 21, 1917
111. Melancon, "Peasant and Workers' Party," pp. 27-28
112. Although Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and SRs laid plans for armed resistance in Moscow, the Presnia uprising was led by the SR (later SR-Maximalist) M. Sokolov and mostly SR armed brotherhoods engaged in the fighting. For a brief accurate discussion, Jan Kusber, Krieg und Revolution in Russland 1904-1906. Das Militaer im Verhaeltnis zu Wirtschaft, Autokratie und Gesellschaft Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1997p. 111-12 in Moscow, the Presnia uprising was led by the SR (later SR-Maximalist) M. Sokolov and mostly SR armed brotherhoods engaged in the fighting. For a brief accurate discussion, see Jan Kusber, Krieg und Revolution in Russland 1904-1906. Das Militaer im Verhaeltnis zu Wirtschaft, Autokratie und Gesellschaft (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1997)p. 111-12
113. Smith, Red Petrogradp. 142, 151, and 153
114. Partiia sotsialistov-revoliutsionerov. Dokumenty i materialy, 1900-1922 gg., 3 vols. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996-), 1: 21; gg., 3 vols. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996-), 1: 21
115. Protokoly Pervogo S"ezda Partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov, ed. Maureen Perrie (Millwood, NY: Kraus International Publications, 1983). 363. The 1906 program contains wording that espouses professional organizations of workers and their progressively widening participation in establishing the internal organization of labor in industrial establishments; SR wartime leaflets are in the archival collections of the Gosudarstvennaia obshchestvenno- politicheskaia biblioteka (Moscow). by Maureen Perrie (Millwood, NY: Kraus International Publications, 1983). 363. The 1906 program contains wording that espouses "professional organizations of workers and their progressively widening participation in establishing the internal organization of labor in industrial establishments"; SR wartime leaflets are in the archival collections of the Gosudarstvennaia obshchestvenno-politicheskaia biblioteka (Moscow)
116. GARF, Fond 472, op. 1, ll.10-12, Materials of the Petrograd Factory Committee Conference, report of the chairman of the Organizational Bureau, V. M. Levin. Committee Conference, report of the chairman of the Organizational Bureau, V. M. Levin
117. Bulkin, "Soiuz metallistov i department politsii," Krasnaia letopis. no. 8 (1923). 225
118. Proletarii, no. 50 (1909)
119. Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv sotsial'no-politicheskoi istorii (formerly RTsKhDNI), f. 6860, o. I, d.173, l. 4; Zvezda, no.31/67, April 17, 1912; RTsKhDNI), f. 6860, o. I, d.173, l. 4; Zvezda, no.31/67, April 17, 1912
120. Pravda (Vienna) no. 25, April 23/May 6, 1912
121. I. Iakovlev, "Aprel'sko-maiskie dni 1912 goda v Peterburge," Krasnaia letopis', no. 3 (1925)p. 230-37
122. McKean, St. Peterburg between the Revolutions. 90
123. Listovki Peterburgskhikh bol'shevikov, 1902-1917 gg., 3 vols. (Leningrad Gos. izd-vo polit. lit-ry, 1939) 2: 74-75, 82-84; Gos. izd-vo polit. lit-ry, 1939) 2: 74-75, 82-84
124. "Lenin i Pravda," Krasnaia Letopis, no. 1 (1924). 71
125. Istoriia rabochikh Leningrada, 2 vols. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1972), 1: 431
126. Pravda, no 10/304, May 3, 1913
127. Luch, no.100/86, May 3, 1913
128. Novaia rabochaia gazeta, no.8/26, Jan. 11, 1914
129. Listovki Peterburgskhikh bol'shevikov, 2: 74-75, 82-84
130. Istoriia rabochikh Leningrada, 1: 431
131. Trotskii, "Pis'ma ob edinstve," Luch, nos. 27, 29, 30, Febr. 2 Semkovskii to Akselrod, Nikolaevskii Collection, Series 16, Box 42, ff. 9. 5, 6, 1913; Semkovskii to Akselrod, Nikolaevskii Collection, Series 16, Box 42, ff. 9
132. Of direct bearing on these questions is Nikolai Mikhailov's "The Collective Psychology of Russian Workers and Workplace Self-Organization in the Early Twentieth Century, in Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 77-94. As regards SR involvement among workers, Sarah Badcock (University of Nottingham) has suggested the predominant role of that party among workers in Nizhnii-Novgorod (Sormovo). Collective Psychology of Russian Workers and Workplace Self-Organization in the Early Twentieth Century," in Melanconate, New Labor Historyp. 77-94. As regards SR involvement among workers, Sarah Badcock (University of Nottingham) has suggested the predominant role of that party among workers in Nizhnii-Novgorod (Sormovo)
133. Orland Figes & Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1999), is an apt example. It applies a medley of new methodologies to analyze highly selective evidence to prove the old saw about Russian society's political backwardness. Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1999), is an apt example. It applies a medley of new methodologies to analyze highly selective evidence to "prove" the old saw about Russian society's political backwardness
134. Donald J. Raleigh, Revolution on the Volga: 1917 in Saratov (Ithaca, NY Cornell Univ. Press, 1986). 323
135. Christopher Read, From Tsar to Soviets: The Russian people and their revolutions, 1917-21 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996), espec. pp. 145-79; revolutions, 1917-21 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996), espec. pp. 145-79
136. Rex Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press 2000), espec. pp. 206-54. 2000), espec. pp. 206-54
137. Morson and Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtinp. 55-56. As much as anything else Bakhtin's concept of outsidedness sets him apart from post-modernist analysis which, having abandoned the search for objectivity, extols analysis from within a discourse. Bakhtin's concept of "outsidedness" sets him apart from post-modernist analysis which, having abandoned the search for objectivity, extols analysis from within a discourse
138. For a translation of these statements more opaque than that used here see Bakhtin, Toward a Philosophy of the Act. 7
139. For a preliminary discussion of such questions, see Alice Pate "Workers and Obshchestvennost': St. Petersburg, 1906-14," Revolutionary Russia, 15, no. 2 (Dec. 2002), 53-71