Reassessing Russian serfdom

European History Quarterly

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 483-526

  Moon, David ^a  

^a NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 63649116943     PISSN: 02656914     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/026569149602600401     Document Type: Review

References (252)

1. See R. Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago and London 1971)
2. V.I. Koretskii, Zakreposhchenie krest'yan i klassovaya bor'ba vo vtoroi polovine XVI v. (Moscow 1970), 122-33
3. Koretskii's conclusion has attracted support among both Western and Soviet historians. See Hellie, Enserfment, 97-101, 321-2, n. 59
4. L.V. Milov, 'O prichinakh vozniknoveniya krepostnichestva v Rossii', Istoriya SSSR (1985), no. 3, 201. Not all historians accept that Boris Godunov did issue a decree banning peasant movement. At the turn of the twentieth century, long before Koretskii's archival discoveries, Klyuchevskii stated categorically that no such decree would ever be found because none had been issued
5. see V.O. Klyuchevskii, Russkaya istoriya: Polnii kurs lektsii v trekh knigakh, 3 vols (Moscow 1993), Vol. 2, 47
6. Koretskii has not convinced all his contemporaries. See N.A. Gorskaya, ed., Krest'yanstvo v periody rannego i razvitogo feodalizma (Moscow 1990); 11, 376
7. V.M. Panaekh, 'Zakreposhchenie krest'yan v XVI v: novye materialy, kontseptsii, perspektivy izucheniya (po povoduknigi V.I. Koretskogo)', Istoriya SSSR (1972), no. 1, 161-5
8. J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ 1961), 262-5
9. The proportion of serfs of secular landowners in the peasant population of the expanding Russian state was 68 percent in 1678, 60 percent in 1795 and 47 percent in 1857. Peasants of all categories made up around 90 percent of the population. See Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii v kontse XVII-nachale XVIII veka: (Chislennost', soslovno-klassovyi sostav, razmeshchenie) (Moscow 1977), 102, 134
10. V.M. Kabuzan, Izmeneniya v razmeshchenii naseleniya Rossii v XVIII-pervoi polovine XIX v. (Po materialam revizii) (Moscow 1971), 59-181
11. Hellie, Enserfment, 248-9
12. See D. Field, 'The Year of the Jubilee' in B. Eklof, J. Bushnell and L. Zakharova, eds, Russia's Great Reforms, 1855-1881 (Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN 1994), 40-57
13. M.B. Petrovich, 'The Peasant in Nineteenth-Century Historiography', in W.S. Vucinich, ed., The Peasant in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Stanford 1968), 218-30
14. C. Worobec, 'Contemporary Historians on the Muscovite Peasantry', Canadian Slavonic Papers, 23 (1981), 315-23
15. For a historiographical survey of the 'Great Reforms', including the abolition of serfdom, see A. Gleason, 'The Great Reforms and the Historians since Stalin', in Eklof et al., eds, Russia's Great Reforms, 1-16. For a selection of secondary literature, see T. Emmons, ed., Emancipation of the Russian Serfs (New York and London 1970)
16. For a concise survey, see M. Perrie, Alexander II: Emancipation and Reform in Russia, 1855-1881, revised edn (London 1993)
17. For a few examples, see A. Ya. Degtiarev, S.G. Kashchenko, D.I. Raskin, 'The Novgorod Countryside in the Reform of 1861: a Computer-Aided Experimental Study', Soviet Studies in History, 30, 4 (Spring 1992) (ed. S.L. Hoch)
18. N.M. Druzhinin, Russkaya derevnya na perelome 1861-1880 gg. (Moscow 1978)
19. P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London 1986)
20. A. Gerschenkron, 'Agrarian Policies and Industrialization: Russia, 1861-1917', Cambridge Economic History of Europe, 6, 2 (Cambridge 1965), 706-800
21. S.L. Hoch, 'On Good Numbers and Bad: Malthus, Population Trends and Peasant Standard of Living in Late Imperial Russia', Slavic Review, 53 (1994), 41-75
22. The balance in favour of the period after 1861 among recent scholars working on the Russian peasantry has been noted in: R. Bartlett, 'Introduction', in Bartlett, ed., Land Commune and Peasant Community in Russia: Communal Forms in Imperial and Early Soviet Society (Basingstoke and London 1990), 4
23. D. Moon, 'Recent books on the Russian Peasantry', Historical Journal, 35 (1992), 958
24. J. Burbank, 'Revisioning Imperial Russia', Slavic Review, 52(1993), 563-7
25. See P. Burke, 'Introduction: Concepts of Continuity and Change in History', in Burke, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge 1979), 1-14
26. On the resilience of European nobilities, see H.M. Scott, 'Conclusion: The Continuity of Aristocratic Power', in Scott, ed., The European Nobilities in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 2 vols (London and New York 1995), Vol. 2, Northern, Central and Eastern Europe, 274-91
27. See S. Smith, 'Writing the History of the Russian Revolution after the Fall of Communism', Europe-Asia Studies, 46 (1994), 563-78
28. See Burbank, 'Revisioning', 555-67
29. B. Eklof, 'Introduction', in Eklof et al., eds, Russia's Great Reforms, vii-xvi
30. G.T. Robinson, Rural Russia under the Old Regime: a History of the Landlord-Peasant World and a Prologue to the Peasant Revolution of 1917 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA 1960 [1st edn 1932])
31. L. Volin, A Century of Russian Agriculture: From Alexander II to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA and London 1970)
32. P. Kolchin, Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, MA and London 1987)
33. S.L. Hoch, Serfdom and Social Control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a Village in Tambov (Chicago and London 1986)
34. S.L. Hoch, 'Bridewealth, Dowry, and Socioeconomic Differentiation in Rural Russia', in G. Grantham and C. Leonard, eds, Agrarian Organization in the Century of Industrialization: Europe, Russia, and North America, Research in Economic History, supp. 5, pt B (Greenwich, CT 1989), 389-409
35. S.L. Hoch, "The Serf Economy and the Social Order in Russia', unpublished paper presented to Conference on Serfdom and Slavery, University of Manchester, 5-7 September 1994
36. H.E. Melton, 'Serfdom and the Peasant Economy in Russia: 1780-1861', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation (Columbia 1983)
37. H.E. Melton, 'Proto-industrialization, Serf Agriculture and Agrarian Social Structure: Two Estates in Nineteenth Century Russia', Past and Present, 115 (1987), 69-106
38. H.E. Melton, 'Enlightened Seigniorialism and its Dilemmas in Serf Russia, 1750-1830', Journal of Modern History, 62 (1990), 675-708
39. H.E. Melton, 'Household Economies and Communal Conflicts on a Russian Serf Estate, 1800-1817', Journal of Social History, 26 (1993), 559-85
40. See also R. Bohac, 'Family, Property, and Socioeconomic Mobility: Russian Peasants on Manuilovskoe Estate, 1810-1861', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation (Illinois 1982)
41. R. Bohac, 'Peasant Inheritance Strategies in Russia', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 16 (1985), 23-42
42. R. Bohac, 'The Mir and the Military Draft', Slavic Review, 47 (1988), 652-66
43. R. Bohac, 'Agricultural Structure and the Origins of Migration in Central Russia, 1810-1850', in Grantham and Leonard, Agrarian Organization, 369-87
44. R. Bohac, 'Widows and the Russian Serf Community', in B.E. Clements, B.A. Engel and C.D. Worobec, eds, Russia's Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation (Berkeley, Los Angeles, CA and Oxford 1991), 95-112
45. J. Bushnell, 'Did Serfowners Control Marriage? Orlov Serfs and Their Neighbours, 1773-1861', Slavic Review, 52 (1993), 419-45
46. P. Czap, Jr, 'Marriage and the Peasant Joint Family in the Era of Serfdom', in D.L. Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia: New Lines of Historical Research (Urbana, Chicago, IL and London 1978), 103-23
47. P. Czap, 'The Perennial Multiple Family Household, Mishino, Russia 1782-1858', Journal of Family History, 7 (1982), 5-26
48. P. Czap, 'A Large Family: the Peasant's Greatest Wealth. Serf Households in Mishino, Russia, 1814-1858', in R. Wall, et al., eds, Family Forms in Historic Europe (Cambridge 1983), 105-51
49. C. Leonard, 'Landlords and the Mir: Transaction Costs and Economic Development in Pre-Emancipation Russia (laroslav Guberniia)', in Bartlett, ed., Land Commune, 121-42
50. M. Confino, Domaines et seigneurs en Russie vers la fin du XVIIIe siècle: Étude de structures agraires et de mentalités économiques (Paris 1963)
51. M. Confino, Systèmes agraires et progrès agricole: l'assolement triennal en Russie aux XVIIIe-XIXe siècles. Étude d'économie et de sociologie rurales (Paris and The Hague 1969)
52. R.E.F. Smith, Peasant Farming in Muscovy (Cambridge 1977)
53. R.E.F. Smith and D. Christian, Bread and Salt: a Social and Economic History of Food and Drink in Russia (Cambridge 1984)
54. Their major works are: V.I. Semevskii, Krest'yanskii vopros v Rossiiv XVIII i pervoi polovine XIX veka, 2 vols (St Petersburg 1888)
55. V.I. Semevskii, Krest'yane v tsarstvovanie Imperatoritsy Ekateriny II, Vol. 1, 2nd edn (St Petersburg 1903 [first published 1881]), Vol. 2 (St Petersburg 1901)
56. I.I. Ignatovich, Pomeshchich'i krest'yane nakanune osvobozhdeniya, 3rd edn (Leningrad 1925)
57. I.I. Ignatovich, 'Krest'yanskie volneniya', in A.K. Dzhivelegov, et al., eds, Velikaya Reforma: Russkoe Obshchestvo i Krest'yanskii Vopros v Proshlom i Nastoyashchem. Yubileinoe izdanie (Moscow 1911), Vol. III, 41-65
58. For a survey of the literature on the 'crisis', see D.I. Kopylov, 'Sovetskaya istoriografiya vtoroi poloviny 60-kh-nachalo 80-kh godov o krizise feodal'nokrepostnicheskoi sistemy khozyaistva', in D.I. Kopylov, ed, Krizis feodal'nokrepostnicheskikh otnoshenii v sel'skom khozyaistve Rossii (vtoraya chetvert' XIX v.) (Vladimir 1984), 3-38
59. The most important monograph is: I.D. Koval'chenko, Russkoe krepostnoe krest'yanstvo v pervoi polovine XIX veka (Moscow 1967)
60. For surveys of the literature on the 'peasant movement', see B.G. Litvak, 'Arkheograficheskoe i istoriograficheskoe znachenie serii dokumental'nykh sbornikov "Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v XIX-nachale XX v."', in S.L. Tikhvinskii, ed., Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoe razvitie Rossii: Sbornik statei k 100-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya Nikolaya Mikhailovicha Druzhinina (Moscow 1986), 119-31
61. P.G. Ryndzyunskii, 'O nekotorykh spornykh voprosov istorii krest'yanskogo dvizheniya v Rossii', Voprosy istorii (1987), no. 8, 79-88
62. The 'peasant movement' in the last 65 years of serfdom is covered by the first four volumes of the documentary publication, N.M. Druzhinin, ed., Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v XIX-nachale XX veka, S.N. Valk, ed., Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1796-1825 gg.: Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow 1961)
63. A.V. Predtechenskii, ed., Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1826-1849 gg.: Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow 1961)
64. S.B. Okun', ed., Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1850-1856 gg.: Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow 1962)
65. S.B. Okun' and K.V. Sivkov, eds, Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1857-mae 1861 gg.: Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow 1963)
66. A typical example of a Soviet work on serfdom is K.V. Sivkov, Ocherki po istorii krepostnogo khozyaistva i krest'yanskogo dvizheniya v Rossii v pervoi polovine XIX v: po materialam arkhiva stepnykh votchin Yusupovykh (Moscow 1951)
67. See, for example B.G. Litvak, Russkaya derevnya v reforme 1861 goda: chemozemnyi tsentr 1861-1895 gg. (Moscow 1972)
68. B.G. Litvak, Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1775-1904 gg.: Istoriya i metodika izucheniya istochnikov (Moscow 1989)
69. M.A. Rakhmatullin, Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v velikorusskikh guberniyakh v 1826-1857 gg. (Moscow 1990)
70. P.G. Ryndzyunskii, 'Ob opredelenii intensivnosti obrochnoi ekspluatatsii krest'yan Tsentral'noi Rossii v kontse XVIII - pervoi polovine XIX v. (O stat'e I.D. Koval'chenko i L.V. Milova)', Istoriya SSSR, (1966), no. 6, 44-64
71. P.G. Ryndzyunskii, 'Vymiralo li krepostnoe krest'yanstvo pered reformoi 1861 g., Voprosy istorii, 7 (1967), 54-70
72. See, for example O. Crisp, Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914 (London and Basingstoke 1976)
73. Z. Deal, Serf and State Peasant Agriculture: Kharkov Province, 1842-1861 (New York 1981)
74. E.D. Domar and M.J. Machina, 'On the Profitability of Russian Serfdom', Journal of Economic History, 44 (1984), 919-55
75. P. Gatrell, 'The Meaning of the Great Reforms in Russian Economic History' in Eklof et al., eds, Russia's Great Reforms, 84-101
76. A. Kahan, The Plow, the Hammer and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia (Chicago and London 1985)
77. A. Kahan, Russian Economic History: the Nineteenth Century (Chicago and London 1989)
78. R.L. Rudolph, 'Family Structure and Proto-Industrialisation in Russia', Journal of Economic History, 40 (1980), 111-18
79. R.L. Rudolph 'Agricultural Structure and Proto-Industrialisation in Russia: Economic Development with Unfree Labour', Journal of Economic History, 45 (1985), 47-69
80. See, for example J.T. Alexander, Emperor of the Cossacks: Pugachev and the Frontier Jacquerie of 1773-1775 (Lawrence, KS 1973)
81. R. Bohac, 'Everyday Forms of Resistance: Serf Opposition to Gentry Exactions, 1800-1861', in E. Kingston-Mann and T. Mixter, eds, Peasant Economy, Culture, and Politics of European Russia, 1800-1921 (Princeton, NJ 1991), 236-60
82. Ch. Danning [C. Dunning], 'Byla li v Rossii v nachale XVII veka krest'yanskaya voina?', Voprosy istorii, (1994), no. 9, 21-34
83. C.S.L. Dunning, 'R.G. Skrynnikov, the Time of Troubles, and the "First Peasant War" in Russia', Russian Review, 50 (1991), 71-81
84. D. Field, Rebels in the Name of the Tsar (Boston, MA and London 1989 [First published in 1976])
85. M. Khodarkovsky, 'The Stepan Razin Uprising: Was it a "Peasant War"?', Jahrbucher fur Geschichte Osteuropas, 42 (1994), 1-19
86. P. Longworth, 'The Pugachev Revolt: The Last Great Cossack Peasant Rising', in H.A. Landsberger, ed., Rural Protest: Peasant Movements and Social Change (London 1974), 194-256
87. P. Longworth; 'The Pretender Phenomenon in Eighteenth-Century Russia', Past and Present, 66 (1975), 61-84
88. P. Longworth, 'The Subversive Legend of Sten'ka Razin', Rossiya/Russia: Studi i ricerche a cura di Vittorio Strada, 2 (1975), 17-40
89. D. Moon, Russian Peasants and Tsarist Legislation on the Eve of Reform: Interaction between Peasants and Officialdom, 1825-1855 (Basingstoke and London 1992)
90. M. Raeff, 'Pugachev's Rebellion', in R. Forster and J.P. Greene, eds, Preconditions of Revolution in Early Modern Europe (Baltimore, MD and London 1970), 169-202. Maureen Perrie's new book, Pretenders and Popular Monorchism in Early Modern Russia: The False Tsars of the Time of Troubles (Cambridge 1995) appeared too late for consideration in this essay
91. Quoted in Burbank, 'Revisioning', 563
92. See, for example W.M. Pintner and D.K. Rowney, Russian Officialdom: The Bureaucratization of Russian Society from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century (London 1980)
93. J.P. LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Class: The Formation of the Russian Political Order 1700-1825 (New York and Oxford 1991)
94. See also the recent political biographies of Russia's rulers, for example E.V. Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress through Coercion in Russia, translated by J.T. Alexander (Armonk, NY and London 1993)
95. C.S. Leonard, Reform and Regicide: the Reign of Peter III of Russia (Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN 1993)
96. I. de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (London 1981)
97. W.B. Lincoln, Nicholas I: Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (DeKalb, IL 1989 [First published 1978])
98. See, for example L.G. Beskrovnyi, Russkaya armiya i flat v XVIII veke: Ocherki (Moscow 1958)
99. L.G. Beskrovnyi, Russkaya armiya i flot v XIX veke: Voenno-ekonomicheskii potentsial Rossii (Moscow 1973)
100. W.C. Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia 1600-1914 (New York 1992)
101. J.L.H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford and New York 1985)
102. W.M. Pintner, 'The Burden of Defense in Imperial Russia, 1725-1914', Russian Review 43 (1984), 231-59
103. E.K. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ 1990)
104. For surveys of the literature, see Raeff M. 'The Russian Nobility in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: Trends and Comparisons', in I. Banac and P. Bushkovich, eds, The Nobility in Russia and Eastern Europe (Baltimore, MD 1983), 99-121
105. I. de Madariaga, 'The Russian Nobility in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in H.M. Scott, ed., European Nobilities, Vol. 2, 223-73, 305-8
106. For an incisive reassessment of serfdom in medieval England in the context of the almost universal 'agreement as to [its] wholly odious and reprehensible character', see J. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage: Towards a Reassessment', Past and Present, 90 (1981), 3-39 (quotation on 3)
107. On equilibria, see W.H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (London 1994 [first published in 1976]), 14-18, 84-5
108. The standard work on the state peasantry is: N.M. Druzhinin, Gosudarstvennye krest'yane i reforma P. D. Kiseleva, 2 vols (Moscow and Leningrad 1946-58). For critical Western responses to Druzhinin's work see O. Crisp, Studies, 73-95
109. B.F. Adams, 'The Reforms of P.D. Kiselev and the History of N.M. Druzhinin', Canadian-American Slavic Studies, 19 (1985), 28-43
110. See also V.M. Kabuzan, 'Gosudarstvennye krest'yane Rossii v XVIII-50-kh godakh XIX veka: Chislennost', sostav i razmeshchenie', Istoriya SSSR, (1988), no. 1, 68-83. On secularization, see Leonard, Reform, 73-89
111. LA. Bulygin, 'Vopros o seklyarizatsii dukhovykh votchin v pravitel'stvennoi politike 20-kh-nachala 60-kh godov XVIII v.', in A.I. Klibanov, ed., Tserkov', obshchestvo i gosudarstvo v feodal'noi Rossii: Sbornik statei (Moscow 1990), 299-312
112. R.E.F. Smith, ed., The Enserfment of the Russian Peasantry (Cambridge 1968), 3
113. J. Blum, Lord and Peasant, 6-8 (quotation on 8)
114. J. Blum, 'The Rise of Serfdom in Eastern Europe', American Historical Review, 62 (1957), 807-9
115. See also Hellie, Enserfment, 15. John Hatcher proposed a similar definition of 'unfreedom' in medieval England, but stressed the constraints imposed on seigniorial authority by custom
116. J. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom', 29-30, 7-14
117. On the centrality of exploitation to serfdom, see Hoch, Serfdom, 1
118. See Hellie, Enserfment, 21-2, 93
119. Keep, Soldiers, 1-9
120. Pintner, 'Burden'; Fuller, Strategy, xiv-xv, 464
121. Smith, Enserfment, 138-9
122. R.O. Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors: The Boyar Elite in Russia 1613-1689 (Princeton, NJ 1983), 34-8, 45-9
123. R.O. Crummey, The Formation of Muscovy 1304-1613 (London and New York 1987), 8-12
124. See also R. Hellie, Slavery in Russia 1450-1725 (Chicago and London 1982)
125. Anisimov, Reforms, 184-92
126. B. Meehan-Waters, Autocracy and Aristocracy: the Russian Service Elite of 1730 (New Brunswick, N J 1982)
127. See also J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society 1550-1800 (London 1991)
128. Anisimov, Reforms, 57-61, 198
129. Fuller, Strategy, 45-50
130. R. Hellie, 'The Petrine Army: Continuity, Change, and Impact', Canadian-American Slavic Studies, 8 (1974), 237-53
131. Beskrovnyi, Russkaya armiya i flot v XIX, 70
132. Wirtschafter, From Serf, 9-15, 156, n. 45
133. Keep, Soldiers, 87-92, 130-40
134. LeDonne, Absolutism, 258-63
135. B.V. Anan'ich, 'Iz istorii zakonodatel'stva o krest'yanakh (vtoraya polovina XIX v.)', in V.V. Mavrodin, ed., Voprosy istorii Rossii: XIX-nachala XX v. (Leningrad 1983), 34-5
136. Crummey, Aristocrats, 34-45, 49-62
137. R.D. Givens, 'Eighteenth-Century Nobiliary Career Patterns and Provincial Government', in Pintner and Rowney, eds, Civil Officialdom, 106-29
138. R.E. Jones, The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility 1762-1785 (Princeton, N J 1973), 18-24
139. Quotation from G. Vernadsky, A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, 3 vols (New Haven, CT and London 1972), Vol. 2, 336
140. See also C. Peterson, Peter the Great's Administrative and Judicial Reforms: Swedish Antecedents and the Process of Reception (Stockholm, 1979), esp. 1-10
141. On the motivation behind Peter's administrative reforms, contrast V. Klyuchevskii, Peter the Great, translated by L. Archibald (London and New York 1965), 74-7 and
142. M. Raeff, Understanding Imperial Russia: State and Society in the Old Regime, translated by A. Goldhammer (New York 1984), 36-7
143. Jones, Emancipation, 164-243
144. S.F. Starr, Decentralization and Self-Government in Russia 1830-70 (Princeton, NJ 1972), 1-48
145. Ignatovich, Pomeshchich'i, 28-30
146. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, 1st edn (St Petersburg 1832) (hereafter cited as SZ, 1), Vol. IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, 202-3, arts 640-4
147. See A. Kahan, 'The Costs of "Westernization" in Russia: The Gentry and the Economy in the Eighteenth Century', Slavic Review, 25 (1966), 40-66
148. A.V. Dulov, Geograficheskaya sreda i istoriya Rossii: konets XV-seredina XIX v. (Moscow 1983), 6-8, 10-11, 16-22
149. Kahan, Plow, 45-79, esp. 57
150. B.N. Mironov, 'When and Why was the Russian Peasantry Emancipated?' unpublished paper presented to conference on Serfdom and Slavery at Manchester University, 5-7 September 1994, 5-6
151. Crisp, Studies, 11-12, 60-6
152. Kahan, Plow, 97-101, 138-44
153. T. Esper, 'The Condition of the Serf Workers in Russia's Metallurgical Industry, 1800-1861', Journal of Modern History, 50 (1978), 660-79
154. Fuller, Strategy, 35-6, 85
155. Crisp, Studies, 17, 55-72, 95 (quotation on 95)
156. Esper, 'Condition', 679
157. Gatrell, 'Meaning', Rudolph, 'Family Structure' and, 'Agricultural Structure'
158. See also B.N. Mironov and I. Ya. Froyanov, review of N.I. Pavlenko, Istoriya SSSRs drevneishikh vremen do 1861 goda, Voprosy Istorii (1990), no. 10, 178
159. See P. Avrich, Russian Rebels 1600-1800 (New York 1972)
160. J.T. Alexander, Emperor of the Cossacks; Avrich, Russian Rebels, 4-6
161. R.P. Bartlett, 'The Russian Peasantry on the Eve of the French Revolution', History of European Ideas, 12 (1990), 405-7
162. Danning, 'Byla'; Dunning, 'R.G. Skrynnikov'; Khodarkovsky, 'Stepan Razin', 19; Madariaga, Russia, 270-3
163. Raeff, 'Pugachev's Rebellion', 194
164. J.L. Wieczynski, The Russian Frontier: the Impact of Borderlands upon the Course of Early Russian History (Charlottesville, VA 1976), 68-72, 93-4
165. On Soviet historians' views, see V.M. Solov'ev, 'Aktual'nye voprosy izucheniya narodnykh dvizhenii (polemicheskie zametki o krest'yanskikh voinakh v Rossii)', Istoriya SSSR (1991), no. 3, 131-4
166. See J.T. Alexander, Autocratic Politics in a National Crisis: the Imperial Russian Government and Pugachev's Revolt, 1773-1775 (Bloomington, IN and London 1969), 1,75
167. Litvak, Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie, 151-2. Cf. V.A. Fedorov, Trebovaniya krest'yanskogo dvizheniya v nachale revolyutsionnoi situatsii (do 19 fevralya 1861 g.)', Revolyutsionnaya situatsiya v Rossii v 1859-1861 gg., Vol. 1 (Moscow 1960), 133-48
168. Hellie, Enserfment, 108, 138-42, 329, nn. 34 and 35, 246-9, 381, n. 110. Cf. V.I. Koretskii, Formirovanie krepostnogo prava i pervaya krest'yanskaya voina v Rossii (Moscow 1975), 369
169. See Bohac, 'Everyday'; Hoch, Serfdom, 160-86
170. Litvak, Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie, 151, 179-80, 184
171. Moon, Russian Peasants
172. See also: J.C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, CT and London 1985)
173. See Hoch, 'Serf Economy', 7. More perceptive Soviet historians acknowledged the stability of servile villages. Mironov and Froyanov, review article, Voprosy Istorii, (1990), no. 10, 178
174. See M.P. Perrie, 'The Russian Peasant Movement of 1905-1907: its Social Composition and Revolutionary Significance', Past and Present, 57 (1972), 123-55
175. J. Channon, 'The Peasantry in the Revolutions of 1917', in E.R. Frankel, et al., eds, Revolution in Russia: Reassessments of 1917 (Cambridge 1992), 105-30
176. R. Taagepera, 'An Overview of the Growth of the Russian Empire', in M. Rywkin, ed., Russian Colonial Expansion to 1917 (London and New York 1988), 1-7. For an overview of Russian imperial expansion, see A. Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich: Enstehung, Geschichte, Zerfall (Munich 1992)
177. Fuller, Strategy (quotation from xix.) Cf. R. Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (London 1974), 1-24, 85-105
178. Melton,'Household', 560-2
179. See N. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, 5th edn (New York and Oxford 1993), 103-6, 145-7
180. H.R. Huttenbach, 'Muscovy's Conquest of Muslim Kazan and Astrakhan, 1552-56. The Conquest of the Volga: Prelude to Empire', in Rywkin, Russian, 45-69
181. Lincoln, Nicholas I, 350
182. See Klyuchevskii's influential essay, first published in the 1880s, 'Proiskhozhdenie krepostnogo prava v Rossii', in V.O. Klyuchevskii, Sochineniya, Vol. 8 (Moscow 1990), 120-93
183. Blum, Lord, 220-8, 442-9, 455-60
184. Ignatovich, Pomeshchich'i, 106-86, 246-79
185. See V.A. Aleksandrov, Sel'skaya obshchina v Rossii (XVII-nachalo XIX v.) (Moscow 1976)
186. Kolchin, Unfree Labor, 58-9, 61-5, 68-78
187. D. Field, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855-1861 (Cambridge, MA and London 1976), 24-35
188. Mironov, 'When', 3-5
189. See Jones, Emancipation; Madariaga, Russia, 48-9, 277-9, 295-9
190. Madariaga, 'Russian Nobility', 256-7, 265-6
191. LeDonne, 'The Eighteenth-Century Russian Nobility: Bureaucracy or Ruling Class?', Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique, 34, 1-2 (1993), 139-48
192. Jones, Emancipation; Madariaga, 'Russian Nobility'; Meehan-Waters, Autocracy, 166
193. M. Raeff, The Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia: the Eighteenth Century Nobility (New York and London 1966), 14-121
194. Leonard, Reform, 40-72 (quotations from 62, 72)
195. M. Raeff, 'The Domestic Policies of Peter III and his Overthrow', American Historical Review, 75 (1970), 1291-4
196. Jones, Emancipation. For the traditional view of the 'emancipation of the nobility', see Pipes, Russia, 130-4
197. See R.J. Abbott, 'Police Reform in the Russian Province of Iaroslavl', 1856-1876', Slavic Review, 32 (1973), 295
198. J.S. Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas I (Durham, NC 1965), 275-6. For numerous examples of nobles relying on state authorities to pacify small-scale peasant disturbances, see the volumes of documents cited in n. 20
199. See Melton, 'Enlightened', esp. 679, 690, 708. At the same time, the Russian state pursued a policy of 'protecting' tribute (yasak) payers among the indigenous peoples of the Far North and Siberia to ensure their peaceful residence in the empire and the interests of the state treasury. Y. Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London 1994), 67
200. See D. Moon, 'Peasant Migration and the Settlement of Russia's Frontiers 1550-1897', Historical Journal, forthcoming
201. S. Hoch, 'The Serf Economy and the Social Order in Russia', unpublished paper presented to Conference on Serfdom and Slavery at Manchester University, 5-7 September 1994, 2
202. See Aleksandrov, Sel'skaya obshchina, 181-241
203. On the debate over the origins of land repartition, see D. Atkinson, The End of the Russian Land Commune 1905-1930 (Stanford, CA 1983), 6-14, 20-22
204. Petrovich, 'Peasant', in Vucinich, ed, Peasant, 206-18
205. I.D. Yakushkin, Zapiski, 3rd edn (St Petersburg 1905), 26-35. On his travels in Yaroslavl' province in the early 1840s, the Baron von Haxthausen heard a tale that serfs in the region were so concerned to have 'good' owners that when their villages came up for sale they used to give money to a nobleman with a reputation as a 'benefactor and father' so that he could buy them. A. von Haxthausen, Studies on the Interior of Russia, translated by E.L.M. Schmidt, edited by S.F. Starr (Chicago and London 1972), 76
206. See Hellie, Enserfment, 93-4, 106, 113,132
207. A. Kalian, 'Natural Calamities and their Effect on the Food Supply in Russia', Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 16 (1968), 353-77
208. Smith, Peasant Farming, 145-7
209. See J.C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, CT and London 1976), esp. 1-7 (quotation on 7). Writing about late thirteenth-century England, Hatcher wrote, 'many freemen were willing to accept personal as well as tenurial servility in their quest for subsistence'. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom', 26
210. Madariaga, Russia, 553
211. Ya. E. Vodarskii, Dvoryanskoe zemlevladenie v Rossii v XVII-pervoi polovine XIX v.: (razmery i razmeshchenie) (Moscow 1988), 227, 236-7
212. Crummey, Aristocrats, 126
213. Semevskii, Krest'yane, Vol. 1, 263-71
214. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, 1st series (St Petersburg, 1830) (hereafter cited as PSZ, 1), Vol. 9, 308-9, no. 6570 (26 April 1734)
215. Kahan, Russian, 115-22
216. S.M. Seredonin, Istoricheskii obzor deyatel'nosti Komiteta ministrov, 3 vols (St Petersburg 1902), Vol II, pt 1, 186
217. PSZ, 1, Vol. 5, 628-9, no. 3294 (January 1719)
218. SZ, 1 (1832), Vol. IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, 186, art 589, 188, art 596, 201, art 633 B.N. Mironov, 'Local Government in Russia in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: Provincial Government and Estate Self-Government', Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 42 (1994), 193
219. S.B. Okun' and E.S. Paina, 'Ukaz ot 5 aprelya 1797 goda i ego evolyutsiya', in N.E. Nosov, ed., Issledovaniya po otechestvennomu istochnikovedenlyu (Leningrad 1964), 283-99
220. See M.P. Perrie, 'Folklore as Evidence of Peasant Mentalité: Social Attitudes and Values in Russian Popular Culture', Russian Review, 48 (1989), 119-43
221. On the contrasting situation in eighteenth-century England, see E.P. Thompson, 'The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century', Past and Present, 50 (1971), 76-136
222. I.I. Ignatovich, Bor'ba krest'yan za osvobozhdenie (Moscow and Leningrad 1924), 151-86
223. Scott, Moral Economy, 188-9
224. Hoch, Serfdom (quotation from 160.) On the basis of data collected by Peter Czap, Richard Wall has shown that in the village of Krasnoe Sobakino, Ryazan' province, in 1849, only 10 percent of male peasants aged between 30 and 39 were household heads compared with 55 percent of those in their 40s and 90 percent of those in their 50s. R. Wall, 'Introduction', in R. Wall, ed., Family Forms in Historic Europe (Cambridge 1983), 37
225. C.D. Worobec, Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post-Emancipation Period (Princeton, NJ 1991), 177
226. See also: Bohac, 'Widows'
227. B. Farnsworth and L. Viola, 'Peasant Women Before the Revolution' in Farnsworth and Viola eds, Russian Peasant Women (Oxford and New York 1992), 3-8
228. M. Matossian, 'The Peasant Way of Life', in Vucinich, Peasant, 16-19
229. Bohac, 'Mir'(quotation on 652.)
230. On the high cost to landowners of hiring peasants to enforce seigniorial control, see Leonard, 'Landlords', 134-6
231. M.M. Gromyko, Traditsionnye normy povedeniya i formy obshcheniya russkikh krest'yan XIX v. (Moscow 1986), 32-64
232. Melton, 'Enlightened', 699-70. For an interpretation of the 'free-rider problem' in peasant societies, based on self-interest of individuals rather than communities, see S.L. Popkin, The Rational Peasant: the Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA and London 1979), 24-7, 255-7
233. See: Fedorov, V.A., Pomeshchich'i krest'yane tsentral'no-promyshlennogo raiona Rossii: kontsa XVIII-pervoi poloviny XIX v. (Moscow 1974); Melton, 'Protoindustrialization'
234. See Confino, Domaines; Leonard, 'Landlords', 133
235. Bushnell, 'Did Serf Owners' (quotation on 445.)
236. Melton,'Household', 559
237. Melton, 'Enlightened', 704. Scott paid a lot of attention to everyday forms of resistance to village elite groups in Weapons of the Weak. Anton Chekhov's short story 'Peasants' and Emile Zola's novel The Earth are powerful fictional portrayals of intra-village feuds and conflict among the Russian and French peasantry in the late nineteenth century
238. For recent discussions of Russian peasant collectivism and egalitarianism, see D. Atkinson, 'Egalitarianism and the Commune', in Bartlett, Land Commune, 7-19
239. V. A. Aleksandrov, Obychnoe pravo krepostnoi derevni Rossii XVIII-nachalo XIX v. (Moscow 1984)
240. Gromyko, Traditsionnye normy; Kolchin, Unfree Labor, 269-71, 331-3, 357. For insight into the biases in official reports on peasant disturbances, see: D. Field, review of S.B. Okun', and K.V. Sivkov, eds, Krest'yanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1857-mae 1861 gg., Kritika, III, 3 (Spring 1967), 34-55
241. See Popkin, Rational Peasant, ix
242. D.L. Ransel 'Introduction', in Olga Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia, Village Life in Late Tsarist Russia, edited and translated by D.L. Ransel (Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN 1993), xviii
243. See D. Moon, 'Peasants into Russian Citizens? A Comparative Perspective', Revolutionary Russia, 9, 1(1996) 43-81
244. See S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization (New York and Oxford 1994), 69-76, 313-20
245. See: Czap, 'Marriage', 122; Leonard, 'Landlords', 134-6
246. Melton, 'Enlightened', 708
247. S.L. Hoch and W.R. Augustine 'The Tax Censuses and the Decline of the Serf Population in Imperial Russia, 1833-1858', Slavic Review, 38 (1979), 403-25. Cf V.M. Kabuzan 'Krepostnoe krest'yanstvo Rossii v XVIII-50-kh godakh XIX v.: Chislennost', sostav i razmeshchenie', Istoriya SSSR, (1982), no. 3, 67-85
248. For surveys of motives for abolition, see Blum, Lord, 612-18; Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe (Princeton, N J 1978) (quotation on 383.)
249. See also: Hoch, 'Serf Economy', 7
250. W.B. Lincoln In the Vanguard of Reform: Russia's Enlightened Bureaucrats, 1825-1861 (DeKalb, IL 1982)
251. See A.J. Rieber, ed., The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A.I. Bariatinskii (Paris and The Hague 1966), 17-29
252. See also P.A. Zaionchkovskii, Otmena krepostnogo prava v Rossii, 3rd edn (Moscow 1968), 63