Diplomacy and international theory

Review of International Studies

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 493-509

  Steiner, Barry H ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 6344240676     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210504006199     Document Type: Review

References (79)

1. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
2. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
3. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
4. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
5. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
6. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
7. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
8. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
9. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
10. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
11. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
12. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
13. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
14. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
15. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
16. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
17. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
18. Cited in William C. Olson, The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp. 122f. Works on negotiation and diplomacy include Adam Watson, Diplomacy (Philadelphia, PA: ISHI Publications, 1986); Paul Gordon Lauren (ed.), Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979); I. William Zartman (ed.), The 50% Solution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976); I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Daniel Druckman and Christopher Mitchell (eds.), Flexibility in International Negotiation and Mediation, special issue of The Annals, 42 (November 1995); I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); Roger Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997); Janice G. Stein (ed.), Getting to the Table (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; Fred C. Iklé, How Nations Negotiate (New York: Harper & Row, 1964); Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); William R. Polk, Neighbors and Strangers, part 6 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Thomas Schelling, 'An Essay on Bargaining', in The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), ch. 2; Sasson Sofer, 'Debate Revisited: Practice over Theory?' Review of International Studies, 14 (July 1988), pp. 195-208; E.L. Woodward, 'The Old and the New Diplomacy', Yale Review, 36 (Spring 1947), pp. 405-422; Robert Jervis, 'Bargaining and Bargaining Tactics', in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (eds.), Coercion (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1972), pp. 272-88; and H. Butterfield, 'The New Diplomacy and Historical Diplomacy', in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), pp. 181-92.
19. John Mearsheimer, 'Disorder Restored', in Graham Allison and Gregory F. Treverton (eds.), Rethinking America's Security (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992), p. 226. Another example of the neglect of diplomacy is 'International Security Studies: A Report of a Conference on the State of the Field', by Joseph S. Nye, Jr., and Scan M. Lynn-Jones, International Security, 12 (Spring 1988), pp. 5-27. The report cites the importance of 'non-military' concerns as an element of national security, but fails to cite the diplomatic aspect of those concerns.
20. John Mearsheimer, 'Disorder Restored', in Graham Allison and Gregory F. Treverton (eds.), Rethinking America's Security (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992), p. 226. Another example of the neglect of diplomacy is 'International Security Studies: A Report of a Conference on the State of the Field', by Joseph S. Nye, Jr., and Scan M. Lynn-Jones, International Security, 12 (Spring 1988), pp. 5-27. The report cites the importance of 'non-military' concerns as an element of national security, but fails to cite the diplomatic aspect of those concerns.
21. For Morgenthau's discussion of the need to revive diplomacy in order to strengthen international peace, see Politics Among Nations, 4th edn. (New York: Knopf, 1967), pp. 532-50; for his argument that diplomacy in the Soviet-American Cold War 'has little with which to operate and tends to become obsolete', see ibid., p. 531.
22. For Morgenthau's discussion of the need to revive diplomacy in order to strengthen international peace, see Politics Among Nations, 4th edn. (New York: Knopf, 1967), pp. 532-50; for his argument that diplomacy in the Soviet-American Cold War 'has little with which to operate and tends to become obsolete', see ibid., p. 531.
23. Alexander L. George, 'Case Studies and Theory Development: The Method of Structured, Focused Comparison', in Lauren, Diplomacy: New Approaches, p. 47.
24. According to one commonly-used international relations text, 'the essence of the [diplomatic] process remains bargaining', in Frederic S. Pearson and J. Martin Rochester, International Relations: The Global Condition in the Twenty-First Century, 4th edn. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1998), p. 267.
25. The present writer has previously studied this distinction in 'Diplomacy as Independent and Dependent Variable', International Negotiation, 6 (2001), pp. 79-104.
26. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 446-7, 534-44.
27. The distinction between the two kinds of diplomacy was suggested to the present writer by Milton J. Esman. See Esman, 'Political and Psychological Factors in Ethnic Conflict', in Joseph V. Montville (ed.) Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), pp. 60-62.
28. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 177.
29. Watson, Diplomacy, p. 33.
30. I am indebted here to World Politics: A Menu for Choice, by Brace Russett and Harvey Starr, 5th edn. (New York: W.H. Freeman, 1996), pp. 20-21.
31. Gordon A. Craig and Alexander L. George, Force and Statecraft, 3rd edn. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. x.
32. The full statement of the theory is as follows: The diplomatic revolution eroded both the conditions and norms that supported the classical European system. Developments in technology and science revolutionized transportation, communications, and the art of warfare; the emergence of mass political parties and of special interest groups rendered domestic peace more precarious and made it more difficult for governments to pursue coherent and consistent policies as in the past; and the rise of new ideologies and extreme forms of nationalism tended to increase international friction and dispute. As the international community became more conflict-prone, the homogeneity of the diplomatic community deteriorated. As the new technologies of war became more difficult to control, diplomats and statesmen lost faith in the norms, procedures and modalities that had maintained the flexibility and viability of the balance-of-power system in the past. Increasingly also foreign affairs fell into the hands of popularly-elected heads of state who were more sensitive to the currents of domestic politics and public opinion.' Ibid., p. 286.
33. Craig and George, Force and Statecraft, 16.
34. See fn. 3.
35. Richard N. Lebow, 'Windows of Opportunity: Do States Jump Through Them?', in Steven E. Miller (ed.), Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 167.
36. Craig and George, Force and Statecraft, p. 224. Emphasis added.
37. Ibid., pp. 153-63. Such an approach is also advocated by George in 'Case Studies and Theory Development'.
38. Ibid., pp. 153-63. Such an approach is also advocated by George in 'Case Studies and Theory Development'.
39. Martin Wight, Power Politics, eds. Hedley Bull and Carsten Holbraad (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978), p. 137.
40. Craig and George, Force and Statecraft, p. 227.
41. Ibid., p. 216. The quotations in the next sentence are also ibid., pp. 225-6.
42. Ibid., p. 216. The quotations in the next sentence are also ibid., pp. 225-6.
43. Robert Jervis, The Logic of Images in International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 95. One reason for this may be that leaders trust their adversary state opponents too much, presuming the latter would not precipitate a confrontation. For a study concluding that too much trust was a cause of the Cuban missile crisis, see Albert and Roberta Wohlstetter, 'Controlling the Risks in Cuba', Adelphi Paper no. 17 (London: Institute of Strategic Studies, April 1965).
44. Robert Jervis, The Logic of Images in International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 95. One reason for this may be that leaders trust their adversary state opponents too much, presuming the latter would not precipitate a confrontation. For a study concluding that too much trust was a cause of the Cuban missile crisis, see Albert and Roberta Wohlstetter, 'Controlling the Risks in Cuba', Adelphi Paper no. 17 (London: Institute of Strategic Studies, April 1965).
45. Gordon W. Prange, The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), pp. 368-9. For helpful analysis of this and related issues, I am indebted to unpublished work by Sutee Ketsiri.
46. Edward Jay Epstein, 'Secrets from the CIA Archive in Teheran', Orbis, 31 (Spring 1987), pp. 39-40.
47. Kennan, Memoirs: 1950-1963 (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1973), p. 139.
48. To be sure, the formal diplomatic potential can be totally neglected. George Kennan refrained from any contact at all with Stalin for nearly a year when serving as ambassador in the Soviet Union in 1953 and 1954. And, prior to the Seven Years War in 1756, British and French leaders, assuming that their opposite counterparts did not want war over their relative empires in North America, did not question each other's pacific intent. So confident were they of peace, that when reports of fighting in Maine and the Ohio Valley reached London and Paris, the governments rejected negotiations, preferring to probe their opponents' intentions with force. The two countries decided to embark upon limited war while maintaining 'cordiality . . . at all cost', since they wished to impress rather than destroy each other. Because of their political and diplomatic optimism, they played down the urgency of the crisis, and the outstanding issues were never really discussed. Patrice Louis-René Higonnet, 'The Origins of the Seven Years' War', Journal of Modern History, 40 (March 1968), p. 78.
49. The case in which 'the urge to preempt . . . could become a dominant motive if the character of military forces endowed haste and initiative with a decisive advantage' is incisively discussed in Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1966), pp. 227ff.
50. Peter Karsten, 'Response to Threat Perception: Accommodation as a Special Case', in Klaus Knorr (ed.), Historical Dimensions of National Security Problems (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1976), pp. 123-4.
51. Robert Jervis, 'Realism, Game Theory, and Cooperation', World Politics, 40 (April 1988), pp. 338-9.
52. Charles Lockhart, Bargaining in International Conflicts (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), p. 141.
53. According to W.N. Medlicott, '[I]t is probably true to say that the absence of clearly defined objectives provided a more serious threat to the peace of Europe [at the time of the Congress of Berlin] than any real incompatibility between the ultimate aims of Austria, England, and Russia'. The Congress of Berlin and After, 2nd edn. (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1963), p. 4.
54. For diplomatic conflict management of the Cuban missile crisis, see Raymond L. Garthoff, Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis, revised edn. (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1989), pp. 97ff.
55. This is known as Homan's theorem; see Zartman and Berman, The Practical Negotiator, p. 13.
56. Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict, p. 47. Zartman and Berman (The Practical Negotiator, pp. 175-6) point out that it is in the details of negotiation that this statement is illustrated.
57. Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict, p. 47. Zartman and Berman (The Practical Negotiator, pp. 175-6) point out that it is in the details of negotiation that this statement is illustrated.
58. Schelling, Arms and Influence, pp. 93-4. Emphasis in original.
59. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), p. 167. Emphasis added.
60. Philip E. Mosely, 'Some Soviet Techniques of Negotiation', in The Kremlin and World Politics: Studies in Soviet Policy and Action (New York: Vintage Books, 1960), pp. 21-2.
61. Schelling, Arms and Influence, p. 96.
62. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 70.
63. Jervis, The Logic of Images, pp. 127-8.
64. Henry Kissinger, A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problems of Peace, 1812-1822 (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964 [1957]), p. 73.
65. Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 89.
66. Schelling, Arms and Influence, p. 120.
67. Ibid., p. 139. Emphasis in original.
68. Observations by Schelling, cited in The Bomb and the Computer, by Andrew Wilson (New York: Delacorte Press, 1968), p. 71.
69. Schelling, Arms and Influence, pp. 140-41.
70. Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict, p. 73.
71. Craig and George, Force and Statecraft, p. 105.
72. In another study, George wrote that 'To urge that the superpowers undertake timely, serious diplomatic discussions to clarify their interests in a particular area and to identify actions by the other side that they would regard as threatening those interests is to do no more than to enjoin US and Soviet leaders to make greater use of traditional diplomatic practices'. He went on to note 'sporadic efforts' to do so, including some successful ones in the 1980s, and noted that 'The question is how to institutionalize such traditional diplomatic practices and make them more effective'. 'US-Soviet Efforts to Cooperate in Crisis Management and Crisis Avoidance', in George et al. (eds.), US-Soviet Security Cooperation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 595. Yet regular useful exchanges between American and Soviet diplomats are known to have occurred through much of the Cold War period, and appear to have been more important than George acknowledges. See, for example, As I Saw It, by Dean Rusk, ed. Daniel S. Papp (New York: Penguin Books, 1991), pp. 357-61.
73. In another study, George wrote that 'To urge that the superpowers undertake timely, serious diplomatic discussions to clarify their interests in a particular area and to identify actions by the other side that they would regard as threatening those interests is to do no more than to enjoin US and Soviet leaders to make greater use of traditional diplomatic practices'. He went on to note 'sporadic efforts' to do so, including some successful ones in the 1980s, and noted that 'The question is how to institutionalize such traditional diplomatic practices and make them more effective'. 'US-Soviet Efforts to Cooperate in Crisis Management and Crisis Avoidance', in George et al. (eds.), US-Soviet Security Cooperation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 595. Yet regular useful exchanges between American and Soviet diplomats are known to have occurred through much of the Cold War period, and appear to have been more important than George acknowledges. See, for example, As I Saw It, by Dean Rusk, ed. Daniel S. Papp (New York: Penguin Books, 1991), pp. 357-61.
74. Harold H. Saunders, 'Regulating Soviet-US Competition and Cooperation in the Arab-Israeli Arena, 1967-86', in US-Soviet Security Cooperation, pp. 575, 578-9.
75. On the value of trust in negotiations, see The Practical Negotiator, pp. 27ff.
76. A remarkable range of views exists on the importance of norms in the Soviet-American Cold War. Compare the neorealist view in Theory of International Politics, pp. 170ff,
77. with that of Stanley Hoffmann in 'International Systems and International Law', in The State of War (New York: Praeger, 1965), pp. 88-122. Even if it is conceded that the modern diplomatic revolution weakened norms favourable to classical diplomacy, it remains to be explained how the 'almost continuous warfare' noted by Craig and George in the classical period (Force and Statecraft, p. 16) permitted classical diplomatic norms to arise.
78. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye Jr, Power and Interdependence (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1977), p. 18. Emphasis added.
79. I b i d.