Procreative compounds: Popular eugenics, artificial insemination and the rise of the American sperm banking industry

Journal of Social History

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2004, Pages

  Daniels, Cynthia R ^a   Golden, Janet ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 6344237491     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2004.0081     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Vial numbers are based on a visit to New England Cryogenic Center, Inc. by Cynthia R. Daniels (CRD), October 24, 2001. Approximately half of the vials of stored sperm are not available for purchase because they were deposited as "insurance" sperm by men undergoing chemotherapy, beginning work in a hazardous industry, going off to war, or traveling during their partners' ovulation cycle. Interviews cited throughout the paper were conducted by phone, in person, or via email as indicated by CRD.
2. There is currently no agency or private organization collecting statistics on the use of artificial insemination in the U.S. This estimate is derived from the following report, calculated in the following way: A 1995 survey involved 6.7 million women aged 15-44 who had a current fertility problem. Of these, 42 percent sought fertility services. Of those who sought fertility services, 12.7 percent used artificial insemination. Calculated as such, approximately 357,000 women used artificial insemination. This includes both insemination with husband's sperm as well as donor insemination. Use of service doesn't tell us the number of children actually conceived as a result. See Elizabeth Hervey Stephen and Anjani Chandra, "Use of Infertility Services in the United States: 1995," Family Planning Perspectives 32 (2000): 132-37.
3. See, for example, Xytex Corporation, "Donor Screening Guide," 2000.
4. Sheryl James, "Chosen Few; Being Accepted as a Sperm Donor Can Be as Difficult as Entering Harvard," St. Petersburg Times 16 October 1989; Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe (LNAU). The acceptance rate at Harvard is 11 percent, while according to anecdotal reports from sperm banks, acceptance rates may be as low as 5 percent. The James article profiles a Florida sperm bank. For a similar account of a New Jersey sperm bank, see Linda Lynwander, "New Jersey Q & A: Albert Anouna; Where the Business is Reproduction," New York Times, 30 September 1990, LNAU.
5. Sheryl James, "Chosen Few; Being Accepted as a Sperm Donor Can Be as Difficult as Entering Harvard," St. Petersburg Times 16 October 1989; Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe (LNAU). The acceptance rate at Harvard is 11 percent, while according to anecdotal reports from sperm banks, acceptance rates may be as low as 5 percent. The James article profiles a Florida sperm bank. For a similar account of a New Jersey sperm bank, see Linda Lynwander, "New Jersey Q & A: Albert Anouna; Where the Business is Reproduction," New York Times, 30 September 1990, LNAU.
6. California Cryobank, Inc., Donor Information, from www.cryobank.com, 2001. All others includes East Indian, Mexican, American Indian, Latin American, South and Central American, Samoan, Hawaiian, Pacific Islander and racial mixes. California Cryobank, Inc., Racial Identification System, www.cryobank.com/racial.html, 2001.
7. California Cryobank, Inc., Donor Information, from www.cryobank.com, 2001. All others includes East Indian, Mexican, American Indian, Latin American, South and Central American, Samoan, Hawaiian, Pacific Islander and racial mixes. California Cryobank, Inc., Racial Identification System, www.cryobank.com/racial.html, 2001.
8. Anthony M. Turano, "Paternity by Proxy," American Mercury 43 (1938): 418-24.
9. For a discussion of current popular interest in eugenics, see Dorothy Nelkin and M. Susan Lindee, "The Revival of Eugenics in American Popular Culture," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 45-46.
10. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Berkeley, 1985); and Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity: 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
11. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Berkeley, 1985); and Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity: 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
12. Alexandra Minna Stern, "Better Babies Contests at the Indiana State Fair: Child Health, Scientific Motherhood and Eugenics in the Midwest, 1920-1935," in Alexandra Minna Stern and Howard Markel, eds. Formative Years: Children's Health in the United States, 1880-2000 (Ann Arbor, 2002), pp. 121-52. See, also Lynn Curry, Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Gender, Health and Progress in Illinois, 1900-1930 (Columbus, OH, 1999), pp. 99-119.
13. Alexandra Minna Stern, "Better Babies Contests at the Indiana State Fair: Child Health, Scientific Motherhood and Eugenics in the Midwest, 1920-1935," in Alexandra Minna Stern and Howard Markel, eds. Formative Years: Children's Health in the United States, 1880-2000 (Ann Arbor, 2002), pp. 121-52. See, also Lynn Curry, Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Gender, Health and Progress in Illinois, 1900-1930 (Columbus, OH, 1999), pp. 99-119.
14. Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics (New York, 1990), p. x.
15. Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore, 1996), pp. 64-68.
16. Elaine Tyler May, Barren in the Promised Land: Childless Americans and the Pursuit of Happiness (New York, 1995), p. 67.
17. R. T Seashore, "Artificial Impregnation," Minnesota Medicine 21 (1938): 641-44.
18. On techniques see, for example C. Travers Stepita, "Physiologic Artificial Insemination," American Journal of Surgery 21 (1933): 450-51; and Walter R. Stokes, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Annals of the District of Columbia 7 (1938): 218-19. On the law, see Frances I. Seymour and Alfred Koerner, "Medicolegal Aspects of Artificial Insemination," Journal of the American Medical Association 107 (1936): 1531-34.
19. On techniques see, for example C. Travers Stepita, "Physiologic Artificial Insemination," American Journal of Surgery 21 (1933): 450-51; and Walter R. Stokes, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Annals of the District of Columbia 7 (1938): 218-19. On the law, see Frances I. Seymour and Alfred Koerner, "Medicolegal Aspects of Artificial Insemination," Journal of the American Medical Association 107 (1936): 1531-34.
20. On techniques see, for example C. Travers Stepita, "Physiologic Artificial Insemination," American Journal of Surgery 21 (1933): 450-51; and Walter R. Stokes, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Annals of the District of Columbia 7 (1938): 218-19. On the law, see Frances I. Seymour and Alfred Koerner, "Medicolegal Aspects of Artificial Insemination," Journal of the American Medical Association 107 (1936): 1531-34.
21. Seashore, "Artificial Impregnation," p. 643.
22. Stepita, "Physiologic Artificial Insemination," p. 450. Seymour and Koerner argued that use of a family donor could lead to problems if the mother transferred her affections to the donor. Seymour and Koerner, "Medicolegal Aspects," p. 1533.
23. Stepita, "Physiologic Artificial Insemination," p. 450. Seymour and Koerner argued that use of a family donor could lead to problems if the mother transferred her affections to the donor. Seymour and Koerner, "Medicolegal Aspects," p. 1533.
24. Frances Seymour, "Eugenics in Practice: Cross Artificial Insemination," Marriage Hygiene 3 (1936): 46.
25. Abner I. Weisman, "The Selection for Donors for Use in Artificial Insemination," Western Journal of Surgery, Obstetrics, and Gynecology 50 (1942): 144.
26. Seymour, "Eugenics in Practice," pp. 43-48.
27. Seashore, "Artificial Impregnation," p. 641. For others who favored careful selection of couples and eugenic interests, see Weisman, "Selection of Donors," p. 142; Marie Pichel Warner, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Woman's Journal 51 (1944): 19; and Leon Israel, "The Scope of Artificial Impregnation in the "Barren Marriage," American Journal of the Medical Sciences 202 (1941): 52-58. Israel chose semen from men of "good character," and "favorable heredity" who had no evidence of having had either gonorrhea or syphilis.
28. Seashore, "Artificial Impregnation," p. 641. For others who favored careful selection of couples and eugenic interests, see Weisman, "Selection of Donors," p. 142; Marie Pichel Warner, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Woman's Journal 51 (1944): 19; and Leon Israel, "The Scope of Artificial Impregnation in the "Barren Marriage," American Journal of the Medical Sciences 202 (1941): 52-58. Israel chose semen from men of "good character," and "favorable heredity" who had no evidence of having had either gonorrhea or syphilis.
29. Seashore, "Artificial Impregnation," p. 641. For others who favored careful selection of couples and eugenic interests, see Weisman, "Selection of Donors," p. 142; Marie Pichel Warner, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Woman's Journal 51 (1944): 19; and Leon Israel, "The Scope of Artificial Impregnation in the "Barren Marriage," American Journal of the Medical Sciences 202 (1941): 52-58. Israel chose semen from men of "good character," and "favorable heredity" who had no evidence of having had either gonorrhea or syphilis.
30. Seashore, "Artificial Impregnation," p. 641. For others who favored careful selection of couples and eugenic interests, see Weisman, "Selection of Donors," p. 142; Marie Pichel Warner, "Artificial Insemination," Medical Woman's Journal 51 (1944): 19; and Leon Israel, "The Scope of Artificial Impregnation in the "Barren Marriage," American Journal of the Medical Sciences 202 (1941): 52-58. Israel chose semen from men of "good character," and "favorable heredity" who had no evidence of having had either gonorrhea or syphilis.
31. Grant S. Beardsley, "Artificial Cross Insemination," Western Journal of Surgery, Obstetrics and Gynecology 48 (1940): 95.
32. David J. Galton, "Greek Theories on Eugenics" Journal of Medical Ethics 24 (1998): 264.
33. Alan Frank Guttmacher, "Practical Experience with Artificial Insemination, " Journal of Contraception 3 (1938): 76.
34. Alan F. Guttmacher, "A Physician's Credo for Artificial Insemination," Western Journal of Surgery, Obstetrics and Gynecology 50 (1942): 358-59.
35. Frances I. Seymour and Alfred Koerner, "Artificial Insemination; Present Status in the United States as Shown by a Recent Survey," Journal of the American Medical Association 116 (1941): 2747-49.
36. Alan F. Guttmacher, "The Role of Artificial Insemination in the Treatment of Human Sterility," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 19 (1943): 573-91. For another critique, see Clair E. Folsome, "The Status of Artificial Insemination, A Critical Review," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 45 (1943): 915-27.
37. Alan F. Guttmacher, "The Role of Artificial Insemination in the Treatment of Human Sterility," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 19 (1943): 573-91. For another critique, see Clair E. Folsome, "The Status of Artificial Insemination, A Critical Review," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 45 (1943): 915-27.
38. "Proxy Fathers," Time 26 (September 26, 1938): 28.
39. Hannah Lees, "Born to Order," Collier's 117 (April 1946): 56.
40. "Eugenic Babies: Medical Science Finds a Way, Even with Sterile Husbands," Literary Digest (November 21, 1936): pp.23-25.
41. "Eugenic Babies: Medical Science Finds a Way, Even with Sterile Husbands," pp.23-25.
42. Turano, "Paternity by Proxy," p. 421.
43. "Test-Tube Test Case," Time 64 (December 27, 1954): 52; and "Proxy Baby," News-week 55 (May 30, 1960): 80-81.
44. "Test-Tube Test Case," Time 64 (December 27, 1954): 52; and "Proxy Baby," News-week 55 (May 30, 1960): 80-81.
45. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
46. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
47. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
48. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
49. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
50. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
51. J. D. Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" Woman's Home Companion 82 (March 1955): 46-47, 51, 54, 56. For examples of articles discussing legal cases, see "'Proxy' Baby," pp. 80-81; "The Riddle of A. I." Time 87 (February 25, 1966): 48; and "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80. For articles focusing on AID as a medical procedure helping childless couples see "Our Two Test Tube Babies," Coronet 39 (March, 1956): 66-69; "Secret of AI," Newsweek 66 (November 15, 1965): 81-82; and "Test Tube Babies: The Controversy Over Artificial Insemination," Good Housekeeping 166 (February 1968): 163-65.
52. Beardsley, "Artificial Cross Examination," p. 98. See also Israel, "Scope of Artificial Impregnation," p. 95; and Folsome, "Status of Artificial Insemination," p. 923.
53. Beardsley, "Artificial Cross Examination," p. 98. See also Israel, "Scope of Artificial Impregnation," p. 95; and Folsome, "Status of Artificial Insemination," p. 923.
54. Beardsley, "Artificial Cross Examination," p. 98. See also Israel, "Scope of Artificial Impregnation," p. 95; and Folsome, "Status of Artificial Insemination," p. 923.
55. "'Breach of Motherhood,'" Time 52 (August 9, 1948): 49. A Methodist clergyman in Britain took issue with the ruling and shocked some with his statement that AID was acceptable for "spinsters, who otherwise would be lonely and would make good mothers." "A Woman's Right? Test Tube Babies for Single Women," Newsweek 51 (February 17, 1958): 54. The debate continued after a court in Scotland ruled in a lawsuit involving a husband seeking divorce after his wife bore a child conceived through AID sixteen months after their separation that this was not adultery. The article reporting this case also noted there had been '10,000 test-tube babies born' in Britain since 1945." "'Artificial Adultery,'" Newsweek 51 (January 27, 1958): 58.
56. "'Breach of Motherhood,'" Time 52 (August 9, 1948): 49. A Methodist clergyman in Britain took issue with the ruling and shocked some with his statement that AID was acceptable for "spinsters, who otherwise would be lonely and would make good mothers." "A Woman's Right? Test Tube Babies for Single Women," Newsweek 51 (February 17, 1958): 54. The debate continued after a court in Scotland ruled in a lawsuit involving a husband seeking divorce after his wife bore a child conceived through AID sixteen months after their separation that this was not adultery. The article reporting this case also noted there had been '10,000 test-tube babies born' in Britain since 1945." "'Artificial Adultery,'" Newsweek 51 (January 27, 1958): 58.
57. "'Breach of Motherhood,'" Time 52 (August 9, 1948): 49. A Methodist clergyman in Britain took issue with the ruling and shocked some with his statement that AID was acceptable for "spinsters, who otherwise would be lonely and would make good mothers." "A Woman's Right? Test Tube Babies for Single Women," Newsweek 51 (February 17, 1958): 54. The debate continued after a court in Scotland ruled in a lawsuit involving a husband seeking divorce after his wife bore a child conceived through AID sixteen months after their separation that this was not adultery. The article reporting this case also noted there had been '10,000 test-tube babies born' in Britain since 1945." "'Artificial Adultery,'" Newsweek 51 (January 27, 1958): 58.
58. "Doctors' Dilemma," Time 54 (October 10, 1949): 83-84.
59. J. K. Sherman, "Banks for Frozen Human Semen: Current Status and Prospects," in The Integrity of Frozen Spermatozoa: Proceedings of a Round-Table Conference, (April 6-7), 1976, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C., Under the Auspices of the U.S. National Committee for the International Institute of Refrigeration, in Conjunction with the Food and Drug Administration and the Naval Medical Research Institute (Washington, DC, 1978), p. 80.
60. C. O. Carter, "Eugenic Implications of New Techniques," in C. O. Carter, ed. Developments in Human Reproduction and their Eugenic, Ethical Implications: Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Symposium of the Eugenics Society London 1982 (London, 1983), p. 207; and OED Online 2nd ed (Oxford University Press, 2003).
61. C. O. Carter, "Eugenic Implications of New Techniques," in C. O. Carter, ed. Developments in Human Reproduction and their Eugenic, Ethical Implications: Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Symposium of the Eugenics Society London 1982 (London, 1983), p. 207; and OED Online 2nd ed (Oxford University Press, 2003).
62. Robert A. Ersek, "Frozen Sperm Banks," [Letter] Journal of the American Medical Association 220 (1972): 1365.
63. Keith D. Smith and Emil Steinberger, "Survival of Spermatozoa in a Human Sperm Bank: Effects of Long-Term Storage," Journal of the American Medical Association 223 (1973): 774-83; R. G. Bunge, and J.K. Sherman, "Fertilizing Capacity of Frozen Human Spermatozoa," Nature 172 (1953): 767-68; and William C. Keettel, et al. "Report of Pregnancies in Infertile Couples," Journal of the American Medical Association 160 (1956): 102-05. For a report on children conceived with frozen sperm see "Babies From Frozen Sperm Healthy, Normal," Science News Letter 85 (June 13, 1964): 374.
64. Keith D. Smith and Emil Steinberger, "Survival of Spermatozoa in a Human Sperm Bank: Effects of Long-Term Storage," Journal of the American Medical Association 223 (1973): 774-83; R. G. Bunge, and J.K. Sherman, "Fertilizing Capacity of Frozen Human Spermatozoa," Nature 172 (1953): 767-68; and William C. Keettel, et al. "Report of Pregnancies in Infertile Couples," Journal of the American Medical Association 160 (1956): 102-05. For a report on children conceived with frozen sperm see "Babies From Frozen Sperm Healthy, Normal," Science News Letter 85 (June 13, 1964): 374.
65. Keith D. Smith and Emil Steinberger, "Survival of Spermatozoa in a Human Sperm Bank: Effects of Long-Term Storage," Journal of the American Medical Association 223 (1973): 774-83; R. G. Bunge, and J.K. Sherman, "Fertilizing Capacity of Frozen Human Spermatozoa," Nature 172 (1953): 767-68; and William C. Keettel, et al. "Report of Pregnancies in Infertile Couples," Journal of the American Medical Association 160 (1956): 102-05. For a report on children conceived with frozen sperm see "Babies From Frozen Sperm Healthy, Normal," Science News Letter 85 (June 13, 1964): 374.
66. Keith D. Smith and Emil Steinberger, "Survival of Spermatozoa in a Human Sperm Bank: Effects of Long-Term Storage," Journal of the American Medical Association 223 (1973): 774-83; R. G. Bunge, and J.K. Sherman, "Fertilizing Capacity of Frozen Human Spermatozoa," Nature 172 (1953): 767-68; and William C. Keettel, et al. "Report of Pregnancies in Infertile Couples," Journal of the American Medical Association 160 (1956): 102-05. For a report on children conceived with frozen sperm see "Babies From Frozen Sperm Healthy, Normal," Science News Letter 85 (June 13, 1964): 374.
67. As quoted by S.J. Behrman and D.R. Ackerman, "Freeze Preservation of Human Sperm," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 103 (1969): 660-61.
68. "Frozen Fatherhood," Time 78 (September 8, 1961): 68. Barbara J. Cullitan, "Sperm Banks Debated," Science News 92 (August 26, 1967): 208-09. Not all scientists endorsed the concept of eugenic sperm banking. One physician affiliated with the Margaret Sanger Research Bureau noted in Newsweek that while he favored sperm banks "to protect human germ plasm from genetic defect or disease" he did not want them used to "make a generation of robots or a super-race of Nobel Prize winners." "Toward a 'Sperm Bank'," Newsweek 67 (April 18, 1966): 101.
69. "Frozen Fatherhood," Time 78 (September 8, 1961): 68. Barbara J. Cullitan, "Sperm Banks Debated," Science News 92 (August 26, 1967): 208-09. Not all scientists endorsed the concept of eugenic sperm banking. One physician affiliated with the Margaret Sanger Research Bureau noted in Newsweek that while he favored sperm banks "to protect human germ plasm from genetic defect or disease" he did not want them used to "make a generation of robots or a super-race of Nobel Prize winners." "Toward a 'Sperm Bank'," Newsweek 67 (April 18, 1966): 101.
70. "Frozen Fatherhood," Time 78 (September 8, 1961): 68. Barbara J. Cullitan, "Sperm Banks Debated," Science News 92 (August 26, 1967): 208-09. Not all scientists endorsed the concept of eugenic sperm banking. One physician affiliated with the Margaret Sanger Research Bureau noted in Newsweek that while he favored sperm banks "to protect human germ plasm from genetic defect or disease" he did not want them used to "make a generation of robots or a super-race of Nobel Prize winners." "Toward a 'Sperm Bank'," Newsweek 67 (April 18, 1966): 101.
71. Hugh Wray-McCann, "Fatherhood in the Deep Freeze," Science Digest 60 (July 1966): 14.
72. Behrman and Ackerman, "Freeze Preservation," pp. 654-64.
73. Dr. S. Leon Israel in "Discussion" following reprint of Behrman and Ackerman's "Freeze Preservation, p. 662.
74. Dr. S. Leon Israel in "Discussion" following reprint of Behrman and Ackerman's "Freeze Preservation, p. 662.
75. The full name of the organization was the Herman J. Muller Repository for Germinal Choice. Muller was deceased and his widow objected to the name, according to Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, pp. 262-63. It opened in 1971 but did not begin collecting donations until several years later. R. B. Brenner, "Sperm repository, marking 10th year, still has same goal-genius," San Diego Union-Tribune, 22 July 1990, LNAU. By 1990 there were no longer any Nobelists among the 20 anonymous donors whose sperm was stored in the facility. The Repository ultimately closed its doors.
76. The full name of the organization was the Herman J. Muller Repository for Germinal Choice. Muller was deceased and his widow objected to the name, according to Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, pp. 262-63. It opened in 1971 but did not begin collecting donations until several years later. R. B. Brenner, "Sperm repository, marking 10th year, still has same goal-genius," San Diego Union-Tribune, 22 July 1990, LNAU. By 1990 there were no longer any Nobelists among the 20 anonymous donors whose sperm was stored in the facility. The Repository ultimately closed its doors.
77. Carter, "Eugenic Implications," pp. 207-08.
78. Shockley's statements are quoted in Vivien Marx, The Semen Book (London, 2001), p. 151.
79. Lees, "Born to Order," p. 20; and Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" pp. 46-47, 51, 54, 56.
80. Lees, "Born to Order," p. 20; and Ratcliff, "Are These the Most Loved Children?" pp. 46-47, 51, 54, 56.
81. Ersek, "Frozen Sperm Banks," p. 1365. On the benefits of frozen sperm see, also S. J. Behrman, "Artificial Insemination," in S. J. Behrman and Robert W. Kistner, eds., Progress in Infertility, 2nd ed. (Boston, 1975), p. 785. Both frozen and fresh donor semen were better than homologous or AIH in terms of pregnancy rates. For questions about the meaning of AID, see "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time, 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80; "Test Tube Babies" pp. 163-65; and Mark S. Frankel, "Human-Semen Banking: Implications for Medicine and Society," Connecticut Medicine 39 (May 1975): 313-17. Frankel suggested "with an increase in commercial frozen-semen banks, the country may witness an increasing commercialization of semen-donor relationships." p. 315. Discussion of the eugenic, ethical, and medical implications of AID continues to this day.
82. Ersek, "Frozen Sperm Banks," p. 1365. On the benefits of frozen sperm see, also S. J. Behrman, "Artificial Insemination," in S. J. Behrman and Robert W. Kistner, eds., Progress in Infertility, 2nd ed. (Boston, 1975), p. 785. Both frozen and fresh donor semen were better than homologous or AIH in terms of pregnancy rates. For questions about the meaning of AID, see "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time, 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80; "Test Tube Babies" pp. 163-65; and Mark S. Frankel, "Human-Semen Banking: Implications for Medicine and Society," Connecticut Medicine 39 (May 1975): 313-17. Frankel suggested "with an increase in commercial frozen-semen banks, the country may witness an increasing commercialization of semen-donor relationships." p. 315. Discussion of the eugenic, ethical, and medical implications of AID continues to this day.
83. Ersek, "Frozen Sperm Banks," p. 1365. On the benefits of frozen sperm see, also S. J. Behrman, "Artificial Insemination," in S. J. Behrman and Robert W. Kistner, eds., Progress in Infertility, 2nd ed. (Boston, 1975), p. 785. Both frozen and fresh donor semen were better than homologous or AIH in terms of pregnancy rates. For questions about the meaning of AID, see "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time, 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80; "Test Tube Babies" pp. 163-65; and Mark S. Frankel, "Human-Semen Banking: Implications for Medicine and Society," Connecticut Medicine 39 (May 1975): 313-17. Frankel suggested "with an increase in commercial frozen-semen banks, the country may witness an increasing commercialization of semen-donor relationships." p. 315. Discussion of the eugenic, ethical, and medical implications of AID continues to this day.
84. Ersek, "Frozen Sperm Banks," p. 1365. On the benefits of frozen sperm see, also S. J. Behrman, "Artificial Insemination," in S. J. Behrman and Robert W. Kistner, eds., Progress in Infertility, 2nd ed. (Boston, 1975), p. 785. Both frozen and fresh donor semen were better than homologous or AIH in terms of pregnancy rates. For questions about the meaning of AID, see "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time, 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80; "Test Tube Babies" pp. 163-65; and Mark S. Frankel, "Human-Semen Banking: Implications for Medicine and Society," Connecticut Medicine 39 (May 1975): 313-17. Frankel suggested "with an increase in commercial frozen-semen banks, the country may witness an increasing commercialization of semen-donor relationships." p. 315. Discussion of the eugenic, ethical, and medical implications of AID continues to this day.
85. Ersek, "Frozen Sperm Banks," p. 1365. On the benefits of frozen sperm see, also S. J. Behrman, "Artificial Insemination," in S. J. Behrman and Robert W. Kistner, eds., Progress in Infertility, 2nd ed. (Boston, 1975), p. 785. Both frozen and fresh donor semen were better than homologous or AIH in terms of pregnancy rates. For questions about the meaning of AID, see "Domestic Relations; The Child of Artificial Insemination," Time, 89 (April 14, 1967): 79-80; "Test Tube Babies" pp. 163-65; and Mark S. Frankel, "Human-Semen Banking: Implications for Medicine and Society," Connecticut Medicine 39 (May 1975): 313-17. Frankel suggested "with an increase in commercial frozen-semen banks, the country may witness an increasing commercialization of semen-donor relationships." p. 315. Discussion of the eugenic, ethical, and medical implications of AID continues to this day.
86. The number of 500 was reported by Mark S. Frankel, "Role of Semen Cryobanking in American Medicine," British Medical Journal (September 7, 1974): 619-21. The number of 1,000 in 1977 was reported by Warren G. Sander and James D. Eisen, "Cryogenically Preserved Human Semen: Clinical Applications," Nebraska Medical Journal (December 1977): 422.
87. The number of 500 was reported by Mark S. Frankel, "Role of Semen Cryobanking in American Medicine," British Medical Journal (September 7, 1974): 619-21. The number of 1,000 in 1977 was reported by Warren G. Sander and James D. Eisen, "Cryogenically Preserved Human Semen: Clinical Applications," Nebraska Medical Journal (December 1977): 422.
88. Rudi Ansbacher, "Artificial Insemination with Frozen Spermatozoa," Fertility and Sterility 29 (1978): 378.
89. Joseph Barkay and Henryk Zuckerman, "Further Developed Device for Human Sperm Freezing by the Twenty-Minute Method," Fertility and Sterility 29 (1978): 304-08.
90. Roy Witherington, John B. Black and Armand M. Karow, Jr., "Semen Cryopreservation: An Update," The Journal of Urology 118 (1977): 510. New England Cryogenics reports successful use of semen after 20 years of cryopreservation
91. Witherington, et al, "Semen Cryopreservation," p. 510.
92. Joseph Feldschuh, "Current Clinical Applications of Sperm Banking," in Integrity of Frozen Spermatozoa, pp. 180-87.
93. In 1996, the federal government issued guidelines for tissue banks in order to prevent the spread of HIV. See: "Guidelines for Preventing Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Through Transplantation of Human Tissue and Organs," Federal Register, Health Care Financing Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Appendix A to Subpart G of Part 486, Effective May 2, 1996.
94. The poem, titled "Seminal Gelation," is by L. Fred Ayvazian and first appeared in The New England Journal of Medicine 279 (1968): 436. It is quoted by S.J. Behrman in an exchange over ethical objections to sperm banking in Behrman and Ackerman, "Freeze Preservation," p. 664
95. The poem, titled "Seminal Gelation," is by L. Fred Ayvazian and first appeared in The New England Journal of Medicine 279 (1968): 436. It is quoted by S.J. Behrman in an exchange over ethical objections to sperm banking in Behrman and Ackerman, "Freeze Preservation," p. 664
96. By the end of 1973, there were reported to be sixteen sperm banks in the U.S., including three major commercial banks with a combined total of seven branch offices. For instance, Idant Corporation opened sperm banks in four cities: New York, Baltimore, Ann Arbor and Minneapolis in 1973. See Frankel, "Role of Semen Cryobanking," p. 619.
97. In 1989 it was estimated that 135 semen banks were in operation in the United States (defined as a facility providing anonymous donor samples). See John K. Critser, "Current Status of Semen Banking in the USA," Human Reproduction Suppl. 2 13 (1998): 55-66.
98. M. Curie-Cohen, L. Luttrell and S. Shapiro, "Current Practice of Artificial Insemination by Donor in the United States," New England Journal of Medicine 300 (1979): 585-90 and Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Congress of the United States, Artificial Insemination Practice in the United States. Summary of a 1987 Survey. Background Paper. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment, Congressional Board of the 100th Congress, U.S. Congress, 1988. Also see G.M. Centola, "American Organization of Sperm Banks," in C. L. R. Barratt and I. D. Cooke, eds. Donor Insemination (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 143-51.
99. M. Curie-Cohen, L. Luttrell and S. Shapiro, "Current Practice of Artificial Insemination by Donor in the United States," New England Journal of Medicine 300 (1979): 585-90 and Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Congress of the United States, Artificial Insemination Practice in the United States. Summary of a 1987 Survey. Background Paper. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment, Congressional Board of the 100th Congress, U.S. Congress, 1988. Also see G.M. Centola, "American Organization of Sperm Banks," in C. L. R. Barratt and I. D. Cooke, eds. Donor Insemination (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 143-51.
100. M. Curie-Cohen, L. Luttrell and S. Shapiro, "Current Practice of Artificial Insemination by Donor in the United States," New England Journal of Medicine 300 (1979): 585-90 and Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Congress of the United States, Artificial Insemination Practice in the United States. Summary of a 1987 Survey. Background Paper. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment, Congressional Board of the 100th Congress, U.S. Congress, 1988. Also see G.M. Centola, "American Organization of Sperm Banks," in C. L. R. Barratt and I. D. Cooke, eds. Donor Insemination (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 143-51.
101. G. J. Stewart, et al, "Transmission of Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus Type III (STLV-III) by Artificial Insemination by Donor," Lancet 2 (1985): 581-84.
102. Mary Ann Chiasson, Rand L. Stonebumer, and Stephen C. Joseph, "Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission Through Artificial Insemination," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 3 (1990): 69-72; Maria Rosario G. Araneta, et. al. "HIV Transmission Through Donor Artificial Insemination," Journal of the American Medical Association 273 (1995): 854-58.
103. Mary Ann Chiasson, Rand L. Stonebumer, and Stephen C. Joseph, "Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission Through Artificial Insemination," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 3 (1990): 69-72; Maria Rosario G. Araneta, et. al. "HIV Transmission Through Donor Artificial Insemination," Journal of the American Medical Association 273 (1995): 854-58.
104. FDA 21 CFR Part 210, 211, 820, 1271 Docket No. 97 N-484S, "Suitability Determination for Donors of Human Cellular and Tissue-Based Products." See, also AATB Information Alert vol. 11, no. 3, January 18, 2001: "FDA Final Rule: Registration and Listing." http://aatb.org Sperm banks were not required to register or undergo inspected by the federal government until 2003, when the FDA required national registration of all sperm banks.
105. FDA 21 CFR Part 210, 211, 820, 1271 Docket No. 97 N-484S, "Suitability Determination for Donors of Human Cellular and Tissue-Based Products." See, also AATB Information Alert vol. 11, no. 3, January 18, 2001: "FDA Final Rule: Registration and Listing." http://aatb.org Sperm banks were not required to register or undergo inspected by the federal government until 2003, when the FDA required national registration of all sperm banks.
106. In the year 2003, these banks were: Andrology Lab, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, BioGenetics, California Cryobank, Cryobiology, Inc., Cryogenic Laboratories, Idant Laboratories, New York Cryo, ReproTech, Inc., and Sperm and Embryo Bank of New Jersey. http://aatb.org.
107. CRD interview with Biogenetics Director, Albert Anouna March 27, 2001 and CRD interview with New England Cryobank Director, John R. Rizza, October 24, 2001.
108. Seven were in California, three were located in the New York and three were located in Minnesota. The remaining banks were scattered across the country, including the states of Washington, Ohio, New Jersey, Colorado, Massachusetts, Utah, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Indiana, Virginia, Missouri, and Arizona.
109. One sperm bank declines to provide donor information until a potential client has filed a "matching" form which the bank then sues to select an "appropriate" sperm donor.
110. These banks were California Cryobank (168); New England Cryogenic Center (120); Fairfax Cryo (119); Cryobiology-OH (96); and Cryogenic Labs (90).
111. Most sperm banks do not because the procedure cannot guarantee the sex of the child, only increase the odds of having one sex or the other.
112. See www.sperm1.com/biogen.htm (2001).
113. See, for example, Swedish Medical in the state of Washington. Only two banks recognized that "Hispanic" is not a racial category, listing a number of donors as Caucasian/Hispanic.
114. U.S. Population percentages are estimates for November 2000, based on the 1990 U.S. Population census available at http://eire.census.gov/popest/ archives/national/nation3/intfile3. Sperm bank percentages are rough estimates, as the categories used by sperm banks are not coterminous with those used by the U.S. census. For example, the U.S. census estimates that .7 percent of the population is "American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut, not Hispanic" while donors in these categories may be listed by sperm banks as "other" or "mixed" race.
115. Cyrobank, 2001.
116. These are Fairfax Cryo in Virginia and Procreative Technologies in St. Louis.
117. While the selection of donors by ethnicity may reflect the consumer's use of this categorization as a proxy for "looking like" the preferred type of partner, the use of religion is more puzzling. No one has ever claimed religion is a heritable characteristic. Sperm bank directors report that religious affiliation is most important for Jewish consumers.
118. On the complexity of heritability of simple human traits, see H. Eldon Sutton and Robert P. Wanger, Genetics: A Human Concern (New York, 1985).
119. Park Avenue Fertility Center, New York City.
120. Northwest Andrology and Cryobank.
121. Rainbow Flag Sperm Bank. In order to be accredited by the American Association of Tissue Banks (AATB), the only professional organization conducting inspections of sperm banks, a bank must reject gay donors. Although only seven banks are accredited, most others follow the standards set by AATB. The American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM, formerly the American Fertility Society) also recommends against the use of semen from gay donors as a "high risk" group for HIV transmission. The FDA considered regulations that would impose a federal ban on the sue of semen from gay donors. See, "Suitability Determination for Donors of Human Cellular and Tissue-Based Products," Federal Register, Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, January 9, 2001.
122. Over the past twenty years, with the growth of the field of eugenics and the development of the Human Genome Project, there has been an upsurge in beliefs about the heritability of not only physical disorders and diseases, but of social and physical traits. Yet, the question of heritability is still very much in dispute in both the scientific community and in popular culture. See, John Hyde Evans, Playing God? Human Genetic Engineering and the Rationalization of Public Bioethical Debate (Chicago, 2002).
123. Median heights are for men aged 20 and according to the 2000 Centers for Disease Control Growth Charts. National Center for Health Statistics, www/cdc/gov/nchs (2002).
124. CRD interview with Anon. #1/(Sept. 2001).