Whereof we can speak, thereof we must not be silent: Trauma, political solipsism and war

Review of International Studies

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 471-491

  Fierke, K M ^a  

^a QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY BELFAST   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 6344226306     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210504006187     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2002), p. 32.
2. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
3. Winter, Sites of Mourning, p. 5.
4. Ibid., p. 9.
5. Julie Kristeva, Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia, trans. L. S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), p. 223.
6. Indeed, there has been little attention to the role of emotion. One excellent exception, which explores this absence as well as formulating positive propositions, is Neta C. Crawford, 'The Passion of World Politics: Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships', International Security, 24: 4 (2000).
7. Patrick Bracken and Celia Petty, Rethinking the Trauma of War (London: Free Association Press, 1998).
8. Jenny Edkins, Trauma Time and the Memory of Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
9. Bessel Van der Kolk and Alexander McFarlane, 'The Black Hole of Trauma', ch. 1 in van der Kolk, McFarlane, and Lars Weisaeth (eds.), Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body and Society (London: The Guildford Press, 1996).
10. This is recognised in the diagnostic categories codified by the American Psychological Association.
11. Martha C. Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 4.
12. The idea of mutual vulnerability explains why those who wish to discourage compassion portray victims as totally dissimilar in kind. As Hilberg argued, the Nazi portrayal of Jews as non-human insects or vermin, or inanimate cargo to be transported, aided the project of distancing the sufferers from their tormentors.
13. Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought, p. 318.
14. Nussbaum asks why these cognitive elements would necessarily be linked to the emotions themselves. Could one have all of the judgements without the painful emotion? She offers several examples. We may find it difficult to have compassion for a stranger or may be too busy and distracted to notice. This example doesn't contain all of the ingredients in so far as it lacks an EJ or any sense of the stranger as a part of one's own scheme of goals and projects. The observer also may not see the seriousness from their point of view. A torturer knows that his victim suffers badly but from his own point of view this is a good thing. Nussbaum concludes that it is only possible to have all three elements and not to feel compassion in a case similar to that of delayed mourning, where the observer simply hasn't taken in what has happened and it has not become a sufficient part of her cognitive repertoire to influence the pattern of her own beliefs and actions.
15. Ellen S. Zinner and Mary Beth Williams, When a Community Weeps: Case Studies in Group Survivorship (London: Brunner/Mazel, 1999).
16. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (New York: Penguin Books, 1980 [1651]).
17. The distinction between natural and social trauma cannot be finely drawn, since many disasters, which may on first sight appear to be natural, such as famine, are embedded in complex social constructions related to the distribution of power, and in this case food.
18. Edkins, Trauma Time, p. 4.
19. Genocide is by definition related to intentionality.
20. Inga Clendinnen, Reading the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 35.
21. Worse than empathy of the latter sort is the total lack of empathy which dehumanises the other. As Kohut states, the dreadful experiences of prolonged stays in concentration camps during the Nazi era in Germany represented a total disregard for the humanity of the victims. Heinz Kohut, 'On Empathy', in P.H. Orstein (ed.), Search for the Self: Selected Writings of Heinz Kohut: 1978-1981 (Madison, CT: International Universities Press, 1981), p. 530. The treatment of a victim, whether Jew, woman or other, as a mere object whose experience doesn't matter arguably involves a more profound evil than to be tortured by an empathetic villain who recognises them as human. The ability to empathise is an essential ingredient of humanity. Compassion goes a step further. It includes the possibility that action to address the suffering of another is of great importance to one's own flourishing. At the point that a suffering other has become a part of one's own ends and goals, this establishes a motive to help that person, that is, to take action. Scientific experiments have revealed that subjects who were urged to relax and use their imaginations when hearing a story of distress reported both greater emotion and greater willingness to help the victim than did subjects who were urged to remain detached and 'objective'. Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought, pp. 334, 340.
22. Worse than empathy of the latter sort is the total lack of empathy which dehumanises the other. As Kohut states, the dreadful experiences of prolonged stays in concentration camps during the Nazi era in Germany represented a total disregard for the humanity of the victims. Heinz Kohut, 'On Empathy', in P.H. Orstein (ed.), Search for the Self: Selected Writings of Heinz Kohut: 1978-1981 (Madison, CT: International Universities Press, 1981), p. 530. The treatment of a victim, whether Jew, woman or other, as a mere object whose experience doesn't matter arguably involves a more profound evil than to be tortured by an empathetic villain who recognises them as human. The ability to empathise is an essential ingredient of humanity. Compassion goes a step further. It includes the possibility that action to address the suffering of another is of great importance to one's own flourishing. At the point that a suffering other has become a part of one's own ends and goals, this establishes a motive to help that person, that is, to take action. Scientific experiments have revealed that subjects who were urged to relax and use their imaginations when hearing a story of distress reported both greater emotion and greater willingness to help the victim than did subjects who were urged to remain detached and 'objective'. Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought, pp. 334, 340.
23. Edkins, Trauma Time, p. 56; Rena Moses-Hrushovski, Grief and Grievance: The Assassination of Yitzak Rabin (Minerva Press, 2000), p. xv; Allen Young, Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 7.
24. Edkins, Trauma Time, p. 56; Rena Moses-Hrushovski, Grief and Grievance: The Assassination of Yitzak Rabin (Minerva Press, 2000), p. xv; Allen Young, Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 7.
25. Edkins, Trauma Time, p. 56; Rena Moses-Hrushovski, Grief and Grievance: The Assassination of Yitzak Rabin (Minerva Press, 2000), p. xv; Allen Young, Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 7.
26. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logicus-Philosophicus (London: Routledge, 1961 [1922]).
27. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1958).
28. A similar claim might be made of Hobbes who wrote in the context of the English Civil War.
29. Ray Monk, Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius (London: Vintage, 1991), p. 138.
30. World War I and the massive experience of shell-shock by soldiers in all countries, contributed to redefinitions of trauma as well as a considerable expansion of psychiatric services to treat soldiers. See Ben Shepard, A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists, 1914-1994 (London: Pimlico, 2002); Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
31. World War I and the massive experience of shell-shock by soldiers in all countries, contributed to redefinitions of trauma as well as a considerable expansion of psychiatric services to treat soldiers. See Ben Shepard, A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists, 1914-1994 (London: Pimlico, 2002); Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
32. The friend was David Pinsent.
33. Monk, The Duty of Genius, p. 154.
34. Ibid., p. 144.
35. As cited in Monk, The Duty of Genius, p. 144. In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein states: 'Solipsism, when it is unravelled, coincides with pure realism'. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logicus-Philosophicus, 5.64.
36. As cited in Monk, The Duty of Genius, p. 144. In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein states: 'Solipsism, when it is unravelled, coincides with pure realism'. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logicus-Philosophicus, 5.64.
37. James C. Edwards, Ethics without Philosophy: Wittgenstein and the Moral Life (Tampa, FA: University Presses of Florida, 1982), p. 79.
38. See, for instance, Kristeva, Black Sun; Edkins, Trauma Time; Patrick Bracken, Trauma: Culture, Meaning and Philosophy (London: Whurr Publishers, 2002); Saul Friedlander (ed.), Probing the Limits of Representation: Nazism and the 'Final Solution' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
39. See, for instance, Kristeva, Black Sun; Edkins, Trauma Time; Patrick Bracken, Trauma: Culture, Meaning and Philosophy (London: Whurr Publishers, 2002); Saul Friedlander (ed.), Probing the Limits of Representation: Nazism and the 'Final Solution' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
40. See, for instance, Kristeva, Black Sun; Edkins, Trauma Time; Patrick Bracken, Trauma: Culture, Meaning and Philosophy (London: Whurr Publishers, 2002); Saul Friedlander (ed.), Probing the Limits of Representation: Nazism and the 'Final Solution' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
41. See, for instance, Kristeva, Black Sun; Edkins, Trauma Time; Patrick Bracken, Trauma: Culture, Meaning and Philosophy (London: Whurr Publishers, 2002); Saul Friedlander (ed.), Probing the Limits of Representation: Nazism and the 'Final Solution' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
42. Fergus Kerr, Theology After Wittgenstein (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), p. 138.
43. David Pears, The False Prison: A Study of the Development of Wittgenstein's Philosophy, vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), p. 187.
44. Pears, The False Prison, pp. 188-9.
45. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy; Winter, Sites of Mourning. One of the seminal works of international relations, written in the aftermath of World War I, E.H. Carr's Twenty Year's Crisis, was also an exploration of the tension between a realist world and the power of ideas to transcend it. Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939 (New York: Harper & Row, 1964 [1939]).
46. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy; Winter, Sites of Mourning. One of the seminal works of international relations, written in the aftermath of World War I, E.H. Carr's Twenty Year's Crisis, was also an exploration of the tension between a realist world and the power of ideas to transcend it. Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939 (New York: Harper & Row, 1964 [1939]).
47. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy; Winter, Sites of Mourning. One of the seminal works of international relations, written in the aftermath of World War I, E.H. Carr's Twenty Year's Crisis, was also an exploration of the tension between a realist world and the power of ideas to transcend it. Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939 (New York: Harper & Row, 1964 [1939]).
48. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy; Winter, Sites of Mourning. One of the seminal works of international relations, written in the aftermath of World War I, E.H. Carr's Twenty Year's Crisis, was also an exploration of the tension between a realist world and the power of ideas to transcend it. Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939 (New York: Harper & Row, 1964 [1939]).
49. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logicus Philosophicus, para. 7.
50. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, para. 199.
51. Ibid., para. 257.
52. For a more indepth discussion of this idea, see Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, paras. 293, 295, 296, 300, 302, 384, 448-9; Veena Das, 'Language and Body: Transactions in the Construction of Pain', and Stanley Cavell, 'Comments on Venna Das's Essay'. In Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das and Margaret Lock (eds.), Social Suffering (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997).
53. For a more indepth discussion of this idea, see Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, paras. 293, 295, 296, 300, 302, 384, 448-9; Veena Das, 'Language and Body: Transactions in the Construction of Pain', and Stanley Cavell, 'Comments on Venna Das's Essay'. In Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das and Margaret Lock (eds.), Social Suffering (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997).
54. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
55. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
56. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
57. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
58. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
59. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
60. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
61. J.R. Averill, 'A Constructivist View of Emotions', in R. Plutchik and H Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, vol. 1: Theories of Emotion (New York: Academic Press, 1980); J.R. Averill, Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion (New York: Springer, 1982); R.S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Michelle Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); R. Schweder and R. A. LeVine (eds.), Culture and Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Rom Harre (ed.), The Social Construction of Emotions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); C. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
62. Harre, The Social Construction of Emotions, p. 13.
63. While employing a cognitive model, Nussbaum admits that emotion is a product of learning and points to the potential for education to the end of greater compassion.
64. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, para. 109; Edwards, Ethics without Philosophy, p. 152
65. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, para. 109; Edwards, Ethics without Philosophy, p. 152
66. As Capps and Ochs state: 'A hallmark of agoraphobia is the way in which sufferers sit at home mulling over anxious experiences, communicating to themselves or to themselves and others at once. This ongoing rumination organizes how sufferers see past, present, future and imagined events in their lives. We cannot penetrate the mind of the ruminator to examine the form of silent self-communication, but we can look at the form of their linguistic expression in social interactions with others. Identifying the linguistic forms that speakers habitually use in building and maintaining portraits of themselves and others allows us to see identities, relationships, and world views in the making. In this sense, attending to grammatical form is central to understanding how people make meaning through language.' Lisa Capps and Elinor Ochs, Constructing Panic: The Discourse of Agoraphobia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995)
67. For example, rather than telling her partner she did not wish to travel to a particular destination via the highway, she would wait until the trip was underway and then experience a panic attack, which would require that others take care of her, and included reversing plans. Capps and Ochs, Constructing Panic, p. 54.
68. This is true of the larger class of metaphors referring to illnesses of the mind. These metaphoric applications also had significance for the classification of unwanted behaviour as illness as distinct from criminal. See Theodore Sarbin, 'Metaphors of Unwanted Conduct: A Historical Sketch'. In David E. Leary (ed.), Metaphors in the History of Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
69. Hacking, Rewriting the Soul.
70. Vamik Volkan, Bloodlines: From Ethnic Pride to Ethnic Terror (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997).
71. Volkan, Bloodlines, p. 40.
72. K.T. Erickson, 'The Loss of Communality at Buffalo Creek', American Journal of Psychiatry, 133 (1976), pp. 302-25.
73. Volkan, Bloodlines, p. 42.
74. Ibid., p. 46.
75. Moses-Hrushovski, Grief and Grievance.
76. Thomas J. Scheff and Suzanne M. Retzinger, Emotions and Violence: Shame and Rage in Destructive Conflicts (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1991).
77. Sheff and Rezinger, Emotions and Violence, p. 30.
78. Scheff and Rezinger, 'Hitler's Appeal', Emotions and Violence, pp. 141-64.
79. Omer Bartov, Mirrors of Destruction: War, Genocide and Modern Identity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), ch. 1.
80. Bartov, Mirrors of Destruction, p. 18.
81. Ibid., p. 18.
82. British Channel 4 documentary, 'The War that Made the Nazis', 14 December 2002.
83. Burleigh, The Third Reich, p. 46.
84. As cited in Scheff and Rezinger, Emotion and Violence.
85. In Mein Kampf, Hitler argues that the key to war-time propaganda is simplifying an emotional message, appealing to the masses, rather than the intelligensia, and pounding this home again and again. For him, propaganda was a means to an end, which was the struggle for the unity of the German nation (Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 164-9).
86. As cited in Scheff and Rezinger, Emotion and Violence.
87. Adolph Hitler, Mein Kampf (London: Pimlico, 2001 [translation 1969]), p. 577.
88. As cited in Burleigh, The Third Reich, p. 116. The events of 9 November 1918 and 1923 became central to the evolving 'liturgy' of National Socialism. The first signified the 'blackest day in German history', and the second the moment of rebirth. By 1926, the National Socialists had declared 9 November the Reich Day of Mourning.
89. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
90. I b i d.
91. The question of whether Germany was solely to blame for World War I, as distinct from World War II, has been a matter of historical debate.
92. The role of the Holocaust in the collective memory of Israel is particularly evident in Avi Shlaim's, The Iron War: Israel and the Arab World (London: Penguin Books, 2000). For an argument that Israeli collective memory should not be explained in terms of psychological trauma, see Peter Novick, The Holocaust and Collective Memory (London: Bloomsbury, 1999).
93. The role of the Holocaust in the collective memory of Israel is particularly evident in Avi Shlaim's, The Iron War: Israel and the Arab World (London: Penguin Books, 2000). For an argument that Israeli collective memory should not be explained in terms of psychological trauma, see Peter Novick, The Holocaust and Collective Memory (London: Bloomsbury, 1999).
94. Steven M. Weine, 'Doing Testimony Psychotherapy', When History is a Nightmare: Lives and Memories of Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia-Herzegovina (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1999), p. 161.
95. Martha Minow, Breaking the Cycles of Hatred: Memory, Law and Repair (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), p. 28.
96. Julie Mertus, Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999).
97. Weine, 'Doing Testimony Psychotherapy'.
98. This logic was evident in British opposition to the invasion of Iraq. There were fears that an attack would increase rather than decrease the threat of terrorism.
99. This line of reasoning is compatible with the idea of the veil of ignorance in John Rawls, Theory of Justice.