Domestic influences on the howard Government's climate policy: Using the past as a guide to the future

Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 11, Issue 1-2, 2008, Pages 51-84

  Macintosh, Andrew ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Australia; Climate change; Climate policy; Howard government

Indexed keywords

EID: 63049116005     PISSN: 13852140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (204)

1. 1771 UNTS 165.
2. (1998) 37 ILM 22.
3. Commonwealth of Australia Australia's Climate Change Policy: Our Economy, Our Environment, Our Future (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007).
4. K. Rudd An Action Agenda for Climate Change, Annual Fraser Lecture, Belconnen Labor Club, Canberra, 30 May 2007 (Australian Labor Party, Canberra: 2007).
5. An understanding of both foreign and domestic factors is necessary to gain a complete picture of the forces that shaped the Howard Government's climate policy. For discussion of foreign influences, see G. Pearse High and Dry: John Howard, climate change and the selling of Australia's future (Penguin Group, Australia: 2007);
6. C. Hamilton Scorcher: The dirty politics of climate change (Black Inc Agenda, Australia: 2007);
7. and P. Christoff "Policy Autism or Double-Edged Dismissiveness? Australia's Climate Policy Under the Howard Government" (2005) 17(1) Global Change, Peace and Security 29-44.
8. Commonwealth of Australia The National Greenhouse Response Strategy (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 1992).
9. Commonwealth of Australia The National Greenhouse Strategy: Strategic Framework for Advancing Australia's Greenhouse Response (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 1998).
10. D. Kemp A Sustainability Strategy for the Australian Continent: Environment Budget Statement 2004-05 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2004).
11. Commonwealth of Australia Securing Australia's Energy Future (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2004).
12. Commonwealth of Australia, note 2.
13. Commonwealth of Australia Australia's Second National Communication on Climate Change: A Report under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 1997).
14. Commonwealth of Australia Australia's Third National Communication on Climate Change: A Report under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2002).
15. Commonwealth of Australia Australia's Fourth National Communication on Climate Change: A Report under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2005).
16. A. Macintosh Annex I Emission and Emission Per Capita Trends (Excluding LULUCF) 1990-2005 and 1996-2005 (ANU Centre for Climate Law and Policy, Canberra: October 2007). These numbers were compiled in accordance with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) accounting procedures, which differ from those governing the preparation of emission reports under the Kyoto Protocol.
17. Between 1996 and 2005, Australia's total emissions (including LULUCF) increased by 13 per cent (UNFCCC Secretariat GHG emission profiles for Annex I parties - Australia (UNFCCC, Germany: 2007)).
18. Non-LULUCF figures are the preferred basis for comparing national performance because of the difficulties and differences in accounting for LULUCF emissions. The trends in Australia's total emissions since 1990 suggest Australia will come close to its Kyoto target of 108 per cent of 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012 (see Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) Tracking the Kyoto Target: Australia's Greenhouse Emission Trends, 1990 to 2008-2012 and 2020 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2006)). This seemingly reasonable performance is not a product of the Howard Government's policies but instead reflects a large decrease in land clearing in Queensland, triggered by changing climatic and agricultural market conditions and modifications to Queensland's land clearing laws.
19. Macintosh, note 14.
20. Australian Greenhouse Office National Greenhouse Strategy: 2000 Progress Report (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2000).
21. See also the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Framework and Implementation Plan (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2006). The framework contains reference to adaptation and outlines a short list of actions designed to promote adaptation in coastal areas.
22. Council of Australian Governments (COAG) National Climate Change Adaptation Framework (COAG Secretariat, Canberra: 2007).
23. COAG Council of Australian Governments' Meeting, Canberra, 13 April 2007, Communiqué (COAG Secretariat, Canberra: 2007).
24. See G. Bang, A. Tjernshaugen and S. Andresen "Future U.S. Climate Policy: International Re-engagement?" (2005) 6 International Studies Perspectives 285-303;
25. P. Christoff "Post-Kyoto? Post-Bush? Towards an effective 'climate coalition of the willing'" (2006) 82(5) International Affairs 831-860;
26. J. McGee and R. Taplin "The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate: A Complement or Competitor to the Kyoto Protocol?" (2006) 18(3) Global Change, Peace and Security 173-192;
27. G. Bang, C. Froyn, J. Hovi and F. Menz "The United States and international climate cooperation: International 'pull' versus domestic 'push'" (2007) 35(2) Energy Policy 1282-1291;
28. P. Christoff and R. Eckersley "Kyoto and the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate" in T. Bonyhady and P. Christoff (eds) Climate Law in Australia (The Federation Press, Sydney: 2007) 32;
29. Pearse, note 5;
30. and Hamilton, note 5.
31. Christoff and Eckersley, note 20
32. and McGee and Taplin, note 20.
33. Beneficiary pays policies are those based on the notion that those who benefit from the abatement of pollution should pay for the actions necessary to do so. Polluter pays approaches assume those responsible for pollution should be required to internalise the environmental costs associated with the polluting activities.
34. There is a wealth of literature on this issue, most of it demonstrating that while there is a place for voluntary and beneficiary pays policies they are best used as a complementary measure, particularly in the context of greenhouse gas abatement. See, for example, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Voluntary Approaches for Environmental Policy (OECD, France: 2003);
35. T. Lyon Voluntary Venus Mandatory Approaches to Climate Change Mitigation (Resources for the Future, Issues Brief, 03-01, United States: 2003);
36. and A. Baranzini and P. Thalmann (eds) Voluntary Approaches in Climate Policy (Edward Elgar Publishing, United Kingdom: 2004).
37. Details of these programs can be found in Australia's National Communications under the UNFCCC (see notes 11, 12 and 13). The Ozone Measures were first introduced by the Hawke Labor Government in the late 1980s in response to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which entered into force in January 1989. The relevant statutes are the Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas Management Act 1989 [Aust].
38. Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Import Levy) Act 1995 [Aust]
39. and Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Manufacturing Levy) Act 1995 [Aust]. The Howard Government amended the ozone laws in 1999 and again in 2003.
40. The CRCs for Greenhouse Gas Technologies, Clean Power from Lignite, Coal in Sustainable Development and Mining.
41. Department of Climate Change Low Emissions Technology Demonstration Fund (10 January 2008).
42. A. Macintosh and D. Wilkinson Why the Telstra agreement will haunt the National Party: Lessons from the Democrats GST deal (The Australia Institute, Canberra: 2005);
43. Department of the Environment and Water Resources Annual Report 2004-05 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2005);
44. Department of the Environment and Water Resources Annual Report 2005-6 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2006);
45. Department of the Environment and Water Resources Annual Report 2006-07 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007);
46. and AGO Greenhouse Gas Abatement Programme (GGAP) (10 January 2008).
47. World Coal Institute Coal Facts: 2007 Edition (world Coal Institute, United Kingdom: 2007) 2.
48. The USA, India, Australia and China all obtain 50 per cent or more of their electricity from coal. See World Coal Institute, ibid.
49. Information provided by the natural sciences is both a domestic and international influence. It was included as a domestic influence because of the extent of climate research conducted by Australian scientists.
50. J. Houghton, L. Meira. Filho, B. Callender, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg and K. Maskell (eds) Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 1995) 3.
51. J. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. van der Linden, X. Dai., K. Maskell and C. Johnson (eds) Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2001).
52. S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. Averyt, M. Tignor and H. Miller (eds) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2007).
53. N. Nakicenovic, J. Alcamo, G. Davis, B. de Vries, J. Fenhann, S. Gaffin, K. Gregory, A. Grobler, T. Yong Jung, T. Kram, E. Lebre La Rovere, L. Michaelis, S. Mori, T. Morita, W. Pepper, H. Pitcher, L. Price, K. Riahi, A. Roehrl, H. Rogner, A. Sankovski, M. Schlesinger, P. Shukla, S. Smith, R. Swart, S. van Rooijen, N. Victor and Z. Dadi Emissions Scenarios: A Special Report of IPCC Working Group III (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2000).
54. Solomon et al., note 34.
55. CSIRO Climate Change Scenarios for the Australian Region (CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Melbourne: 1996);
56. CSIRO Climate Projections for Australia (CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Melbourne: 2001);
57. and CSIRO Climate Change in Australia: Technical Report (CSIRO, Melbourne: 2007).
58. See, for example, German Advisory Council on Climate Change New Impetus for Climate Policy: Making the Most of Germany's Dual Presidency (WBGU Secretariat, Germany: 2007);
59. Scientific Expert Group on Climate Change Confronting Climate Change: Avoiding the Unmanageable and Managing the Unavoidable (United Nations Foundation and The Scientific Research Society, United States: 2007);
60. International Climate Change Taskforce Meeting the Climate Challenge: Recommendations of the International Climate Change Taskforce (Institute for Public Policy Research, United Kingdom: 2005);
61. European Parliament European Parliament Resolution on "Winning the Battle Against Global Climate Change" (European Parliament, A6-0312/2005: 16 November 2005);
62. and European Parliament European Parliament Resolution an Climate Change (European Parliament, B6-0045/2007, 14 February 2007).
63. A number of scientists contend that the trigger point for dangerous climate change is lower due to the risks associated with the disintegration of the Greenland and West Antarctic Ice Sheets. See, for example, J. Hansen, M. Sato, R. Ruedy, P. Kharecha, A. Lacis, R. Miller, L. Nazarenko, K. Lo, G. Schmidt, G. Russell, I. Aleinov, S. Bauer, E. Baum, B. Cairns, V. Canuto, M. Chandler, Y. Cheng, A. Cohen, A. Del Genio, G. Faluvegi, E. Fleming, A. Friend, T. Hall, C. Jackman, J. Jonas, M. Kelley, N. Kiang, D. Koch, G. Labow, J. Lerner, S. Menon, T. Novakov, V. Oinas, Ja. Perlwitz, Ju. Perlwitz, D. Rind, A. Romanou, R. Schmunk, D. Shindell, P. Stone, S. Sun, D. Streets, N. Tausnev, D. Thresher, N. Unger, M. Yao, and S. Zhang "Dangerous human-made interference with climate: a GISS modelE study" 7 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2287-2312.
64. Solomon et al., note 34.
65. The cooling effects of aerosols are currently offsetting the warming from elevated greenhouse gas concentrations.
66. M. Raupach, G. Marland, P. Ciais, C. Le Quere, J. Canadell, G. Klepper and C. Field "Global and Regional Drivers of Accelerating CO2 Emissions" (1997) 104(24) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 10288-10293.
67. Solomon et al, note 34.
68. House of Representatives Standing Committee on Science and Innovation Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Science of Geosequestration (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007) 114.
69. Ibid, at 124.
70. In 1997, the Prime Minister stated that "there is ... quite a bit of debate about the science so far as greenhouse effects are concerned, and it's not all one way. It is not all the - how should one put it? - the apocalyptic view of the world and of life" ABC Television The 7:30 Report 22 September 1997). Although not wholly inconsistent with his more recent public view, this statement could be interpreted as an expression of scepticism toward the theory of human-induced climate change.
71. J. Howard "What Price Global Warming?", ABC Television Four Corners 28 August 2006 (16 November 2007).
72. Examples include the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting scheme and Australian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation.
73. See N. Stern The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2007);
74. R. Warren, C. Hope, M. Mastrandrea, R. Tol, N. Adger and I. Lorenzoni Spotlighting Impacts Functions in Integrated Assessment Research Report Prepared for the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Working Paper No. 91, United Kingdom: 2006);
75. W. Nordhaus and M. Boyer Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming (MIT Press, United States: 2000);
76. R. Tol "The Marginal Damage Costs of Carbon Dioxide Emissions: An Assessment of the Uncertainties" (2005) 33(16) Energy Policy 2064;
77. J. Bruce, H. Lee and E. Haites (eds) Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel an Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 1995);
78. J. McCarthy, O. Canziani, N. Leary, D. Dokken and K. White (eds) Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2001);
79. M. Parry, O. Canziani, J. Palutikof, P. van der Linden and C. Hanson (eds) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2007);
80. and E. Plambeck and C. Hope "PAGE95: An Updated Valuation of the Impacts of Global Warming" (1996) 24(9) Energy Policy 783.
81. Tol, note 48.
82. Ibid, at 2073.
83. R. Mendelsohn "Is there a Case for Aggressive, Near-term Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases? A Critique of the Stern Report" (2006-2007) (Winter) Regulation 42;
84. R. Mendelsohn and L. Williams "Comparing Forecasts of the Global Impacts of Climate Change" (2004) 9 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 315;
85. Nordhaus and Boyer, note 48;
86. R. Tol "The Marginal Costs of Greenhouse Gas Emissions" (1999) 20(1) The Energy Journal 61;
87. N. Birdsall and A. Steer "Act Now on Global Warming-But Don't Cook the Books" (1993) 30(1) Finance and Development 6;
88. and World Bank World Development Report 1992: Development and the Environment (Oxford University Press, United Kingdom: 1992).
89. W. Cline The Economics of Global Warming (Institute for International Economics, United States: 1992);
90. W. Cline "Give Greenhouse Abatement a Fair Chance" (1993) 30(1) Finance and Development 3;
91. and Stern, note 48.
92. See also T. Downing, D. Anthoff, R. Butterfield, M. Ceronsky, M. Grubb, J. Guo, C. Hepburn, C. Hope, A. Hunt, A. Li, A. Markandya, S. Moss, A. Nyong, R. Tol and P. Watkiss Social Cost of Carbon: A Closer Look at Uncertainty, Final Project Report (UK Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, United Kingdom: 2005).
93. Cline (1993), note 52 at 4.
94. Stern, note 48.
95. Stern, note 48 at ii.
96. Note that the Stern Review did not compare abatement costs with the costs associated with the avoided warming. This omission attracted criticism. See R. Tol "The Stern Review of the Economics of Climate Change: A Comment" (2006) 17(6) Energy and Environment 977.
97. Tol, note 55 at 980.
98. W. Nordhaus "A Review of the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change" (2007) 45(3) Journal of Economic Literature 686;
99. P. Dasgupta "Commentary: The Stern Review's Economics of Climate Change" (2007) 199 (January) National Institute Economic Review 4;
100. R. Baker, A. Barker, A. Johnston and M. Kohlhaas The Stern Review: An Assessment of its Methodology (Productivity Commission, Staff Working Paper, Melbourne: 2008);
101. and Mendelsohn, note 51.
102. For discussion, see T. Sterner and U. Persson An Even Sterner Review: Introducing Relative Prices into the Discounting Debate (Resources for the Future, United States: 2007);
103. Baker et al., note 57;
104. and Tol, note 48.
105. P. Diamond and J. Hausman "Contingent Valuation: Is Some Number Better than no Number?" (1994) 8(4) Journal of Economic Perspectives 45.
106. J. Quiggin Stern on the Costs of Climate Change, Part 1, (2006) (24 January 2008).
107. B. Fisher and A. Matysek "Greenhouse Quick Fixes Sure to Backfire" Australian Financial Review 1 May 2006.
108. Commonwealth of Australia, note 7.
109. I. Macfarlane "Tony Jones Speaks to Ian Macfarlane" ABC Television Lateline 30 April 2007 (15 January 2008).
110. Commonwealth of Australia, note 7 at viii.
111. World Bank, note 51 at 161.
112. World Bank, note 51;
113. and Birdsall and Steer, note 51.
114. Commonwealth of Australia, note 7 at vii.
115. Between 1990 and 2005, Australia's emissions increased by 26 per cent (see Macintosh, note 14).
116. A. Fraser "Greenhouse Report Pure Speculation, Says Howard" Canberra Times 1 November 2006 at 2.
117. Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 30 October 2006, 36 (John Howard, Prime Minister).
118. Fraser, note 69.
119. Macfarlane, note 63.
120. Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 29 May 2007, 48 (John Howard, Prime Minister).
121. W. McKibbin Modelling Results for the Kyoto Protocol (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2002).
122. ABARE COP7: The Economic Implications of the Kyoto Protocol for Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2002).
123. H. Abammad, A. Matysek, B. Fisher, R. Curtotti, A. Gurney, G. Jakeman, E. Heyhoe and D. Gunasekera Economic Impact of Climate Change Policy: The Role of Technology and Economic Instruments (ABARE, Canberra: 2006) 53.
124. Australian Bureau of Statistics National Income, Expenditure and Product, 5206.0 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: June Quarter, 2005).
125. Ahammad et al., note 76.
126. ABARE Australian Commodity Statistics 2006 (ABARE, Canberra: 2006)
127. and K. Donaldson Energy in Australia 2006 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007).
128. C. Cuevas-Cubria and D. Riwoe Australian Energy: National and State Projections to 2029-30 (ABARE, Canberra: 2006) 30
129. and Apelbaum Consulting Australian Transport Facts 2007 (Apelbaum Consulting Group Pty Ltd, Victoria: 2007).
130. Donaldson, note 79.
131. See H. Saddler, F. Muller and C. Cuevas Competitiveness and Carbon Pricing: Border Adjustments for Greenhouse Policies (The Australia Institute, Canberra: 2006) 14.
132. Ibid.
133. A. Downer Australia and Climate Change, Address by The Hon Alexander Downer, MP, Minister for Foreign Affairs, to the 'Global Emissions Agreements and Australian Business Seminar', Melbourne, 7 July 1997 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 1997).
134. The Howard Government's negotiating position at Kyoto was endorsed by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) in November 2007 (see COAG Council of Australian Governments Communiqué 7 November 1997 (COAG Secretariat, Canberra: 1997)).
135. J. Howard "Towards a Post-Kyoto, Low Emissions Future" The Age 17 June 2004 at 13.
136. See also Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 30 October 2006, 35 (John Howard, Prime Minister).
137. Commonwealth of Australia, Securing Australia's Energy Future (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2004) and J. Howard, ibid.
138. Saddler et al., note 82.
139. See also the discussion of measures to protect trade-exposed, emission intensive industries in the report of the Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading (P. Shergold, D. Borthwick, P. Coates, T. Concannon, K. Henry, R. Higgins. M. Jackson, M. L'Estrange, C. Lynch, J. Marlay, M. Paterson and J. Stewart Report of the Task Group on Emissions Trading (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007) at 116-117).
140. ABC Television "What Price Global Warming?" Four Corners 28 August 2006 (16 November 2007).
141. J. Howard "Climate Change Fund" Media Release 21 October 2007.
142. See also ABC Television Federal Election: The Debate 21 October 2007 (10 January 2008).
143. R. Garnaut "Will Climate Change Bring an End to the Platinum Age?" presented at the inaugural S.T.Lee Lecture on Asia and the Pacific held at the Australian National University on 29 November 2007 (Garnaut Review Secretariat, Melbourne: 2007).
144. 2 content of unleaded petrol of 2,234.6 g/L, a petrol price of AUS$1.29/1, and that the entire tax is passed onto consumers.
145. J. Howard "Mix of Energy Sources Will Ensure Supply and Ongoing Prosperity" Sydney Morning Herald 17 June 2004 (24 April 2008).
146. S. Walsh Notes of LETAG Meeting with Prime Minister Howard May 6, 2004 (2004) The Australia Institute (19 November 2007).
147. See also C. Miller "PM called talks to derail renewable energy" The Sunday Age 3 October 2004 (24 April 2008).
148. Commonwealth of Australia, note 87.
149. S. Lewis and N. Wilson "Howard Backs 'Traditional' Power Supplies" The Australian 16 June 2004 at 1-2.
150. Pearse, note 5;
151. Hamilton, note 5;
152. and C. Hamilton Running From the Storm: The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia (University of NSW Press, Sydney: 2001).
153. Pearse, note 5 at 230.
154. Ibid, at 228-238.
155. The National Farmers' Federation did not support ratification during the Howard era. See National Farmers' Federation Land and Native Vegetation Policy Greenhouse (National Farmers' Federation, Canberra; 15 April 2004).
156. Shergold et al., note 88.
157. Commonwealth of Australia Fact Sheet - A National Clean Energy Target (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007).
158. See, for example, J. Agnone "Amplifying Public Opinion: The Policy Impact of the U.S. Environmental Movement" (2007) 85(4) Social Forces 1593-1620.
159. A. Downs An Economic Theory of Democracy (Harper and Bros., United States: 1957);
160. M. Olson The Logic of Collective Action (Harvard University Press, United States: 1965)
161. and D. Mueller Public Choice II (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 1989).
162. M. Grattan and J. Topsfield "Most Voters Want Action on Warming" The Age 7 November 2006.
163. A. Crabb "Newspoll Backs Treaty" The Age 20 April 2001;
164. AAP "Howard Attacks Kyoto Survey" Illawarra Mercury 21 April 2001;
165. "PM Rejects Kyoto Poll" The Daily Telegraph 21 April 2001;
166. and Pearse, note 5.
167. See also "Poll Says PM all Hot Air" Illawarra Mercury 10 July 2002.
168. "PM Out of Step on Climate Change: Poll" The Australian 2 November 2006.
169. See AAP, note 106
170. and Daily Telegraph, note 106.
171. Newspoll Post-Election Poll, Newspoll/Australian survey (Newspoll, Sydney: 4 December 2007).
172. Newspoll Importance and Best Party to Handle Major Issues, Newspoll/ Australian Survey (Newspoll, Sydney: 14 March 2007)
173. and Newspoll Importance and Best Party to Handle Major Issues, Newspoll/Australian survey (Newspoll, Sydney: 21 June 2007).
174. Hamilton, note 5 and Pearse, note 5.
175. W. Dubinsky "Review of Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction" (1991-92) 90(6) Michigan Law Review 1515.
176. See, for example, Senate Environment, Communications, Information Technology and the Arts Committee, The Heat is On - Australia's Greenhouse Future (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 7 November 2000).
177. A. Macintosh and D. Wilkinson Why the Telstra Agreement will Haunt the National Party: Lessons from the Democrats GST deal (The Australia Institute, Canberra: 2005).
178. Ibid.
179. See Department of the Environment and Water Resources Annual Report 2006-07 (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2007)
180. and Macintosh and Wilkinson, note 114.
181. Australian National Audit Office The Administration of Major Programs - Australian Greenhouse Office (Commonwealth of Australia, Audit Report No. 34, 2003-04, Canberra: 2004).
182. See Commonwealth of Australia Charities Bill 2003 - Exposure Draft (Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: 2003);
183. Clive Hamilton and Sarah Maddison Silencing Dissent (Allen & Unwin, Sydney: 2007);
184. Clive Hamilton and Andrew Macintosh Taming the Panda: The Relationship between WWF Australia and the Howard Government (The Australia Institute, Canberra: 2004).
185. R. Manne "In Search of Howard's End" The Age 9 October 2006.
186. Pearse, note 5 at 143.
187. G. Heggelund "China's Climate Change Policy: Domestic and International Developments" (2007) 31(2) Asian Perspective 155-191;
188. Bang, Froyn, Hovi and Menz, note 21;
189. and G. Bang Sources of Influence an Climate Change Policymaking: A Comparative Analysis of Norway, Germany and the United States (PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Political Science, University of Oslo, Norway: June 2003).
190. ABC Television Federal Election: The Debate 21 October 2007 (10 January 2008).
191. See also ABC Television "Rudd on the Green Offensive" The 7:30 Report 30 October 2007 (10 January 2008).
192. IPCC Climate Change 2007: Mitigation, Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom: 2007).
193. European Parliament, note 38.
194. See K. Rudd, C. Evans and P. Garrett New Directions for Australia's Coal Industry: The National Clean Coal Initiative (Australian Labor Party, Canberra: 2007)
195. and Australian Labor Party National Clean Coal Initiative: Fact Sheet (Australian Labor Party, Canberra: 2007).
196. Pressure from State and Territory Labor Governments was instrumental in getting the Howard Government to agree to establish a national emissions trading scheme.
197. Australian Electoral Commission Funding and Disclosure - Annual Returns Locator Service (16 January 2008).
198. See, for example, Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU) Climate Change (CFMEU, Sydney, 14 November 2006)
199. and Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) Principles and Policy an Global Warning (ACTU, Melbourne: March 2007).
200. ABC Television "Nelson Backs Labor on Kyoto" ABC News (29 November 2007).
201. Stephanie Peatling "Libs Back Bali Agreement" Sydney Morning Herald 15 December 2007 at 4.
202. B. Nelson and G. Hunt "A Positive Agenda for Bali" (Press Release, 12 December 2007).
203. Peatling, note 130.
204. Newspoll, note 109.