The effect of implicit moral attitudes on managerial decision-making: An implicit social cognition approach

Journal of Business Ethics

Volumn 85, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 157-171

  Marquardt, Nicki ^a   Hoeger, Rainer ^a  

^a LEUPHANA UNIVERSITY OF LÜNEBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Business ethics; Ethical decision making; Implicit association test (IAT); Implicit attitudes; Implicit social cognition; Mental processes; Moral judgements

Indexed keywords

EID: 62649102376     PISSN: 01674544     EISSN: 15730697     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10551-008-9754-8     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Agor W. H.:1989, Intuition in Organizations (Sage Publications, Newbury Park CA)
2. E. V. Aidman S. M. Carroll 2003 Implicit Individual Differences: Relationships Between Implicit Self-Esteem, Gender Identity, and Gender Attitudes European Journal of Personality 17 1 19 37 10.1002/per.465
3. I. Ajzen 1991 The Theory of Planned Behavior Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50 2 179 211 10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
4. Ajzen I., J. Sexton: 1999, Depth of Processing, Belief Congruence and Attitude-Behavior Correspondence in S. Chaiken, Y. Trope (eds.), Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology (Guilford Press, New York), pp. 117-138
5. J. B. Asendorf R. Banse D. Mückle 2002 Double Dissociation Between Explicit and Implicit Personality Self-Concept: The Case of Shy Behavior Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 2 380 393 10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.380
6. D. Bartlett 2003 Management and Business Ethics: A Critique and Integration of Ethical Decision-Making Models British Journal of Management 14 223 235 10.1111/1467-8551.00376
7. R. C. Baumhart 1961 How Ethical are Businessmen? Harvard Business Review 39 6 8
8. Bazerman M. H.: 1998, Judgement in Managerial Decision Making (4th ed.), (John Wiley & Sons, New York)
9. M. H. Bazerman M. R. Banaji 2004 The Social Psychology of Ordinary Ethical Failures Social Justice Research 17 111 115 10.1023/B:SORE.0000027544. 56030. 04
10. D. S. Beu M. R. Buckley M. G. Harvey 2003 Ethical Decision-Making a Multidimensional Construct Business Ethics: A European Review 12 88 107
11. J. K. Bosson W. B Swann J. W. Pennebaker 2000 Stalking the Perfect Measure of Self-Esteem: The Blind Men and the Elephant Revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 4 631 643 10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.631
12. Bower G. H., J. P. Forgas: 2000, Affect, Memory, and Social Cognition, in E. Eich, J. F. Kihlstrom, G. H. Bower, J. P. Forgas, P. M. Niedenthal (eds.), Cognition and Emotion (University Press, Oxford), pp. 87-157
13. Bowers P. G.: 1994, 'Intuition', in R. J. Sternberg (ed.), Encyclopedia of Intelligence (Macmillan, New York), pp. 613-617
14. N. E. Bowie 2000 Business Ethics, Philosophy, and the Next 25 Years Business Ethics Quarterly 10 1 7 20
15. S. N. Brenner E. A. Molander 1977 Is the Ethics of Business Changing? Harvard Business Review 55 57 71
16. Brewer M. B.: 2003, 'Implicit and Explicit Process in Social Judgment', in J. P. Forgas, K. D. Williams, W. von Hippel (eds.), Social Judgments: Implicit and Explicit Processes, 387-395 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
17. Carroll A. B., A. K. Buchholtz: 2003, Business & Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management (5th ed.) (South-Western, Mason)
18. D. Chugh 2004 Societal and Managerial Implications of Implicit Social Cognition: Why Milliseconds Matter Social Justice Research 17 203 222 10.1023/B:SORE.0000027410.26010.40
19. J. Chung G. S. Monroe 2007 An Exploratory Study of Counterexplanation as an Ethical Intervention Strategy Journal of Business Ethics 73 245 261 10.1007/s10551-006-9204-4
20. Cohen J.: 1988 Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. (Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ)
21. J. R. Cohen L. W. Pant D. J. Sharp 1996 Measuring the Ethical Awareness and Ethical Orientation of Canadian Auditors Behavioral Research in Accounting 8 98 119
22. J. R. Cohen L. W. Pant D. J. Sharp 2001 An Examination of Differences in Ethical Decision Making Between Canadian Business Students and Accounting Professionals Journal of Business Ethics 30 319 336 10.1023/A:1010745425675
23. D. Cole M. J. Sirgy M. M. Bird 2000 How do Managers Make Teleological Evaluations in Ethical Dilemmas? Testing Part of and Extending the Hunt-Vitell Model Journal of Business Ethics 26 259 269 10.1023/A:1006106300954
24. P. E. Connor B. W. Becker 1998 Personal Value Systems and Decision-Making Styles of Public Managers Public Personnel Management 32 155 180
25. R. R. Cottone R. E. Claus 2000 Ethical Decision-Making Models: A Review of the Literature Journal of Counseling & Development 78 275 284
26. Dane, E. and M. Pratt: 2004, 'Intuition: It's Boundaries and Role in Organizational Decision-Making', Academy of Management Proceedings, pp. A1-A6
27. R. A. DiBattista 1989 Providing a Rationale for Ethical Conduct from Alternatives Taken in Ethical Dilemmas The Journal of General Psychology 116 207 214
28. Dienes Z., J. Perner: 1996, Implicit Knowledge in People and Connectionist Networks, in G. Underwood (ed), Implicit Cognition (University Press, Oxford), pp. 227-253
29. A. Dijksterhuis 2004 Think Different: The Merits of Unconscious Thought in Preference Development and Decision Making Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 586 598 10.1037/0022-3514. 87.5.586
30. A. Dijksterhuis L. F. Nordgren 2006 A Theory of Unconscious Thought Perspectives on Psychological Science 1 95 109 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00007.x
31. A. Dijksterhuis Z. van Olden 2006 On the Benefits of Thinking Unconsciously: Unconscious Thought Can Increase Post-Choice Satisfaction Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 627 631 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.10.008
32. Dorfman J., V. A. Shames, J. F. Kihlstrom: 1996, Intuition, Incubation, and Insight: Implicit Cognition in Problem Solving, in G. Underwood (ed), Implicit Cognition (University Press, Oxford), pp. 257-286
33. Epstein S.: 1991, Cognitive-Experimental Self-Theory: An Integrative Theory of Personality', in R. Curtis (ed.). The Relational Self: Theoretical Convergences in Psychoanalytical, Social, and Personality Psychology (Guilford, New York), pp. 111-137
34. Fazio R. H.: 1990, Multiple Processes by Which Attitudes Guide Behavior: The MODE Model as an Integrative Framework. in M. P. Zanna (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Vol. 23 (Academic Press, San Diego), pp. 75-109
35. Fazio R. H.: 1995, 'Attitudes as Object-Evaluation Associations: Determinants, Consequences, and Correlates of Attitude Accessibility', in R. E. Petty, J. A. Krosnick (eds.), Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences (Erlbaum, Mahwah), pp. 247-282)
36. R. H. Fazio D. M. Sanbonmatsu M. C. Powell F. R. Kardes 1986 On the Automatic Activation of Attitudes Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 229 238 10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.229
37. Fazio R. H., T. Towles-Schwen: 1999, 'The MODE Model of Attitude-Behavior Processes', in S. Chaiken, Y. Trope (eds.), Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology (Guilford Press, New York), pp. 97-115
38. Fishbein M., I. Ajzen: 1975, Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Addison-Wesley, Reading)
39. Forgas J. P., K. D. Williams, W. von Hippel: 2003, Responding to the Social World: Explicit and Implicit Processes in Social Judgments, in J. P. Forgas, K. D. Williams, W. von Hippel (eds.), Social Judgments: Implicit and Explicit Processes (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge), pp. 1-19
40. B. F. Frey 2000 The Impact of Moral Intensity on Decision Making in a Business Context Journal of Business Ethics 26 181 195
41. B. Frohnen L. Clarke 2002 Scandal in Corporate America: An Ethical, not a Legal, Problem USA Today Magazine 131 2690 24 27
42. B. Gawronski F. R. Conrey 2004 Der Implizite Assoziationstest als Maß automatisch aktivierter Assoziationen: Reichweite und Grenzen Psychologische Rundschau 55 118 126
43. B. Gawronski W. Hofmann C. J. Wilbur 2006 Are "Implicit" Attitudes Unconscious? Consciousness and Cognition 15 485 499
44. Goleman D., R. Boyatzis, A. McKee: 2002, The New Leaders: Transforming the Art of Leadership into the Science of Results. (Time Warner, London)
45. A. G. Greenwald M. R. Banaji 1995 Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes Psychological Review 102 4 27
46. Greenwald, A. G., M. R. Banaji, L. A. Rudman, S. D. Farnham, B. A. Nosek and M. Rosier: 2000, 'Prologue to a Unified Theory of Attitudes, Stereotypes, and Self-Concept', in J. P. Forgas (ed.), Feeling and Thinking: The Role of Affect in Social Cognition (University Press, Cambridge), pp. 308-330
47. A. G. Greenwald D. E. McGhee J. L. K. Schwartz 1998 Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 1464 1480
48. A. G. Greenwald B. A. Nosek M. R. Banaji 2003 Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: An Improved Scoring Algorithm Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 197 216
49. J. Haidt 2001 The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment Psychological Review 108 814 834
50. Hassin R. R., J. S. Uleman, J. A. Bargh: 2005, The New Unconscious. (Oxford University Press, New York)
51. Hogarth, R. M.: 2001, Educating Intuition. (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago)
52. S. D. Hunt S. C. Vitell 1986 A General Theory of Marketing Ethics Journal of Macromarketing 6 5 15
53. S. D. Hunt S. C. Vitell 2006 The General Theory of Marketing Ethics: A Revision and Three Questions Journal of Macromarketing 26 143 153
54. T. M. Jones 1991 Ethical Decision Making by Individuals in Organizations. An Issue-Contingent Model Academy of Management Review 16 366 395
55. Jungermann, H. and P. Slovic: 1993, 'Charakteristika individueller Risikowahrnehmung', in Bayerische Rück (Hrsg.), Risiko ist ein Konstrukt (Knesbeck, München), pp. 88-105
56. Kihlstrom J. F., S. Mulvaney, B. A. Tobias, I. R. Tobis: 2000, 'The Emotional Unconscious', in E. Eich, J. F. Kihlstrom, G. H. Bower, J. P. Forgas, P. M. Niedenthal (eds.), Cognition and Emotion (University Press, Oxford), pp. 30-67
57. Klein G.: 2003, Intuition at Work. (Currency/Doubleday, New York)
58. Kohlberg L.: 1981, Essays in Moral Development, Volume 1: The Philosophy of Moral Development. (Harper and Row, New York)
59. J. Langhan-Fox D. A. Shirley 2003 The Nature and Measurement of Intuition: Cognitive and Behavioural Interests, Personality, and Experiences Creativity Research Journal 15 207 222
60. A. Y. Lewin C. U. Stephens 1994 CEO Attitudes as Determinants of Organizational Design: An Integrated Model Organization Studies 15 183 212
61. T. W. Loe L. Ferrell P. Mansfield 2000 A Review of Empirical Studies Assessing Ethical Decision Making in Business Journal of Business Ethics 25 185 204
62. M. F. Luce 1998 Choosing to Avoid: Coping with Negatively Emotion-Laden Consumer Decisions Journal of Consumer Research 24 409 433
63. D. R. May K.-P. Pauli 2002 The Role of Moral Intensity in Ethical Decision Making Business & Society 41 84 117
64. B. E. Meagher E. V. Aidman 2004 Individual Differences in Implicit and Declared Self-Esteem as Predictors of Response to Negative Performance Evaluation: Validating Implicit Association Test as a Measure of Self-Attitudes International Journal of Testing 4 19 42
65. Mintzberg H.: 1975, The Nature of Managerial Work. (Harper and Row, New York)
66. D. A. Moore G. Loewenstein 2004 Self-Interest, Automaticity, and the Psychology of Conflict of Interest Social Justice Research 17 189 202
67. D. Narvaez T. Bock 2002 Moral Schemas and Tacit Judgment or How the Defining Issues Test is Supported by Cognitive Science Journal of Moral Education 31 297 314
68. Nosek, B. A., A. G. Greenwald and M. R. Banaji: 2008, 'The Implicit Association Test at Age 7: A Methodological and Conceptual Review', in J. A. Bargh (ed.) Automatic Processes in Social Thinking and Behavior (Psychology Press) in press
69. M. J. O'Fallon K. D. Butterfield 2005 A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision Making Literature: 1996-2003 Journal of Business Ethics 59 375 413
70. J. Page 1993 Parsons on Mathematical Intuition Mind 102 247 315
71. J. H. Park M. Schaller 2005 Does Attitude Similarity Serve as a Heuristic Cue for Kinship? Evidence of an Implicit Cognitive Association Evolution and Human Behavior 26 158 170
72. L. Penke J. Eichstaedt J. B. Asendorf 2006 Single-Attribute Implicit Association Tests (SA-IAT) for the Assessment of Unipolar Constructs Experimental Psychology 53 283 291
73. M. Perugini 2005 Predictive Models of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes British Journal of Social Psychology 44 29 45
74. J. A. Petrick R. A. Wagley T. J. von der Embse 1991 Structured Ethical Decision Making: Improving the Prospects of Managerial Success in Business SAM Advanced Management Journal 56 28 34
75. Phelps, E., K. J. O' Connor, W. A. Cunningham, E. S. Funayama, J. C. Gatenby, J. C. Gore and M. R. Banaji: 2000, 'Performance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation', Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12, 729-738
76. H. Plessner R. Banse 2001 Attitude Measurement Using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie 48 82 84
77. Poehlman, T. A., E. Uhlmann, A. G. Greenwald and M. R. Banaji: 2004, 'Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-Analysis of Predictive Validity', submitted
78. B. Z. Posner W. H. Schmidt 1984 Values and the American Manager: An Update California Management Review 26 202 217
79. D. M. Randall A. M. Gibson 1990 Methodology in Business Ethics Research: A Review and Critical Assessment Journal of Business Ethics 9 6 457 471
80. R. E. Reidenbach D. P. Robin 1988 Some Initial Steps Toward Improving the Measurement of Ethical Evaluations of Marketing Activities Journal of Business Ethics 7 871 879
81. R. E. Reidenbach D. P. Robin 1990 Toward the Development of a Multidimensional Scale for Improving Evaluations of Business Ethics Journal of Business Ethics 9 639 653
82. Rest J. R.: 1986, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory. (Praeger, New York)
83. Robbins S. P.: 2003, Organizational Behavior (10th ed.) (Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River)
84. Roberts P.: 1998, Implicit Knowledge and Connectionism: What is the Connection?. in K. Kirsner, C. Speelman, M. Maybery, A. O'Brien-Malone, M. Anderson, C. L. Macleod (eds.), Implicit and Explicit Mental Processes (Lawrence Erlbaum, New Jersey), pp. 119-132
85. Rokeach, M.: 1973, The Nature of Human Values. (Free Press, New York)
86. W. C. Rowatt L. M. Franklin M. Cotton 2005 Patterns and Personality Correlates of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Christians and Muslims Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 44 29 43
87. L. Rudman 2004 Social Justice in Our Minds, Homes, and Society: The Nature, Causes, and Consequences of Implicit Bias Social Justice Research 17 129 142
88. Rummelhart, D. E., J. L. McClelland and the PDP Research Group: 1986, Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Vol. 1: Foundations (MIT Press, Cambridge)
89. E. Sadler-Smith E. Shefy 2004 The Intuitive Executive: Understanding and Applying "Gut Feel" in Decision-Making Academy of Management Executive 18 76 91
90. Sadler-Smith, E. and E. Shefy: 2004b, 'Developing Intuition: "Becoming Smarter by Thinking Less"', Academy of Management Proceedings pc 1, 6p
91. Smith E. R., J. DeCoster: 1999, Associative and Rule-Based Processing. - A Connectionist Interpretation of Dual-Process Models., in S. Chaiken, Y. Trope (eds.), Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology (Guilford Press, New York), pp. 323-336
92. F. Strack R. Deutsch 2004 Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior Personality and Social Psychology Review 8 220 247
93. J. E. Svanson L. A. Rudman A. G. Greenwald 2001 Using the Implicit Association Test to Investigate Attitude-Behavior Consistency for Stigmatised Behavior Cognition and Emotion 15 207 230
94. B. A. Teachman S. R. Woody 2003 Automatic Processing in Spider Phobia: Implicit Fear Associations Over the Course of Treatment Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112 100 109
95. A. E. Tenbrunsel D. M. Messick 2004 Ethical Fading: The Role of Self-Deception in Unethical Behavior Social Justice Research 17 223 236
96. P. E. Tetlock O. V. Kristel S. B. Elson J. S. Lerner 2000 The Psychology of the Unthinkable: Taboo Trade Offs, Forbidden Bases Rates, and Heretical Counterfactuals Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 853 870
97. L. K. Trevino 1986 Ethical Decision-Making in Organisations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model Academy of Management Review 11 601 617
98. L. K. Trevino 1992 Moral Reasoning and Business Ethics: Implications for Research, Education and Management Journal of Business Ethics 11 445 459
99. Underwood G., E. H. Bright: 1996, Cognition with and Without Awareness, in G. Underwood (ed.), Implicit Cognition (University Press, Oxford)
100. T. D. Wilson S. Lindsey T. Schooler 2000 A Model of Dual Attitudes Psychological Review 107 101 126
101. S. H. Yeo M. W. Mak S. A. P. Balon 2004 Analysis of Decision-Making Methodologies for Desirability Score of Conceptual Design Journal of Engineering Design 15 195 208