The consequences of the military revolution in muscovy: A comparative perspective

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 38, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 603-617

  Poe, Marshall ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 6244305387     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0010417500020478     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. The original statement of the military revolution thesis was made by M. Roberts in his 1956 lecture, "The Military Revolution, 1560-1660," which is reprinted in his Essays in Swedish History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), 195-225. There is now a huge literature devoted to the thesis, most of which supports Roberts' original position. The most recent summary statements are G. Parker, The Military Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) and J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550-1800 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1991). On the historiography of the problem, see C. J. Rogers, "The Military Revolution in History and Historiography," in The Military Revolution Debate. Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, C. J. Rogers, ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 2-10.
2. The original statement of the military revolution thesis was made by M. Roberts in his 1956 lecture, "The Military Revolution, 1560-1660," which is reprinted in his Essays in Swedish History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), 195-225. There is now a huge literature devoted to the thesis, most of which supports Roberts' original position. The most recent summary statements are G. Parker, The Military Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) and J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550-1800 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1991). On the historiography of the problem, see C. J. Rogers, "The Military Revolution in History and Historiography," in The Military Revolution Debate. Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, C. J. Rogers, ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 2-10.
3. The original statement of the military revolution thesis was made by M. Roberts in his 1956 lecture, "The Military Revolution, 1560-1660," which is reprinted in his Essays in Swedish History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), 195-225. There is now a huge literature devoted to the thesis, most of which supports Roberts' original position. The most recent summary statements are G. Parker, The Military Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) and J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550-1800 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1991). On the historiography of the problem, see C. J. Rogers, "The Military Revolution in History and Historiography," in The Military Revolution Debate. Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, C. J. Rogers, ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 2-10.
4. The original statement of the military revolution thesis was made by M. Roberts in his 1956 lecture, "The Military Revolution, 1560-1660," which is reprinted in his Essays in Swedish History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), 195-225. There is now a huge literature devoted to the thesis, most of which supports Roberts' original position. The most recent summary statements are G. Parker, The Military Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) and J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550-1800 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1991). On the historiography of the problem, see C. J. Rogers, "The Military Revolution in History and Historiography," in The Military Revolution Debate. Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, C. J. Rogers, ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 2-10.
5. See, for example, J. R. Hale's War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450-1620 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985) which, despite its title, devotes not a page to Muscovy.
6. This is true of O. Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: a Study in History and Politics," in The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, F. Gilbert, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 302-53; P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974), 328-62; R. Bendix, Kings or People? Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 88-127; and B. Downing, "Constitutionalism, Warfare and Political Change in Early Modern Europe," Theory and Society, 17:1 (1988), 11; and B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change. Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 38-43. The popularity of these assumptions is due in large measure to reliance on R. Pipes' Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974). In the non-specialist literature Pipes is cited as an authoritative interpretation, when in fact his is one of several understandings of the nature of Muscovite society.
7. This is true of O. Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: a Study in History and Politics," in The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, F. Gilbert, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 302-53; P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974), 328-62; R. Bendix, Kings or People? Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 88-127; and B. Downing, "Constitutionalism, Warfare and Political Change in Early Modern Europe," Theory and Society, 17:1 (1988), 11; and B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change. Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 38-43. The popularity of these assumptions is due in large measure to reliance on R. Pipes' Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974). In the non-specialist literature Pipes is cited as an authoritative interpretation, when in fact his is one of several understandings of the nature of Muscovite society.
8. This is true of O. Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: a Study in History and Politics," in The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, F. Gilbert, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 302-53; P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974), 328-62; R. Bendix, Kings or People? Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 88-127; and B. Downing, "Constitutionalism, Warfare and Political Change in Early Modern Europe," Theory and Society, 17:1 (1988), 11; and B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change. Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 38-43. The popularity of these assumptions is due in large measure to reliance on R. Pipes' Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974). In the non-specialist literature Pipes is cited as an authoritative interpretation, when in fact his is one of several understandings of the nature of Muscovite society.
9. This is true of O. Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: a Study in History and Politics," in The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, F. Gilbert, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 302-53; P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974), 328-62; R. Bendix, Kings or People? Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 88-127; and B. Downing, "Constitutionalism, Warfare and Political Change in Early Modern Europe," Theory and Society, 17:1 (1988), 11; and B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change. Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 38-43. The popularity of these assumptions is due in large measure to reliance on R. Pipes' Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974). In the non-specialist literature Pipes is cited as an authoritative interpretation, when in fact his is one of several understandings of the nature of Muscovite society.
10. This is true of O. Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: a Study in History and Politics," in The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, F. Gilbert, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 302-53; P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974), 328-62; R. Bendix, Kings or People? Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 88-127; and B. Downing, "Constitutionalism, Warfare and Political Change in Early Modern Europe," Theory and Society, 17:1 (1988), 11; and B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change. Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 38-43. The popularity of these assumptions is due in large measure to reliance on R. Pipes' Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974). In the non-specialist literature Pipes is cited as an authoritative interpretation, when in fact his is one of several understandings of the nature of Muscovite society.
11. This is true of O. Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development: a Study in History and Politics," in The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, F. Gilbert, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 302-53; P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1974), 328-62; R. Bendix, Kings or People? Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 88-127; and B. Downing, "Constitutionalism, Warfare and Political Change in Early Modern Europe," Theory and Society, 17:1 (1988), 11; and B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change. Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 38-43. The popularity of these assumptions is due in large measure to reliance on R. Pipes' Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974). In the non-specialist literature Pipes is cited as an authoritative interpretation, when in fact his is one of several understandings of the nature of Muscovite society.
12. On the old order and the fiscal impact of the new forces, see the arguments and literature reviewed in Downing, The Military Revolution, 74.
13. Roberts, "The Military Revolution," 207.
14. Ibid. Downing, The Military Revolution, explores this in great detail.
15. Comparative works routinely point to the uniqueness of these bodies and their importance tor early modern constitutional development. See, for example, C. Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State-Making," in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, C. Tilly, ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 21-25; and Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State 44-48; and Downing, The Military Revolution, 21-22, 23-24, 30-31, 74-78.
16. Comparative works routinely point to the uniqueness of these bodies and their importance tor early modern constitutional development. See, for example, C. Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State-Making," in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, C. Tilly, ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 21-25; and Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State 44-48; and Downing, The Military Revolution, 21-22, 23-24, 30-31, 74-78.
17. Comparative works routinely point to the uniqueness of these bodies and their importance tor early modern constitutional development. See, for example, C. Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State-Making," in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, C. Tilly, ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 21-25; and Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State 44-48; and Downing, The Military Revolution, 21-22, 23-24, 30-31, 74-78.
18. Roberts "The Military Revolution," 208-13. Most recently, see M. Mandlmayr and K. Vocelka "Vom Adelsaufgebot zum stehenden Heer: Bemerkungen zum Funktionswandel des Adels im Kriegswesen der Frühen Neuzeit," Wiener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Neuzeit, 8 (1981), 112-25.
19. Roberts "The Military Revolution," 208-13. Most recently, see M. Mandlmayr and K. Vocelka "Vom Adelsaufgebot zum stehenden Heer: Bemerkungen zum Funktionswandel des Adels im Kriegswesen der Frühen Neuzeit," Wiener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Neuzeit, 8 (1981), 112-25.
20. Roberts, "The Military Revolution," 210.
21. Ibid., 209.
22. Ibid., 210.
23. Ibid., 212.
24. Ibid., 212-13. For a general treatment, see M. Raeff, The Well-Ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600-1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983).
25. Ibid., 212-13. For a general treatment, see M. Raeff, The Well-Ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600-1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983).
26. See Roberts, "The Military Revolution," 205 and 212-3, and Downing, The Military Revolution, 70.
27. See Roberts, "The Military Revolution," 205 and 212-3, and Downing, The Military Revolution, 70.
28. See L. J. D. Collins "The Military Organization and Tactics of the Crimean Tatars during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in War, Technology and Society in the Middle East V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, eds. (London: Oxford University Press, 1975) and W. Majewski, "The Polish Art of War in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Republic of Nobles. Studies in Polish History to 1864, J. K. Fedorowicz, ed. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 179-97.
29. See L. J. D. Collins "The Military Organization and Tactics of the Crimean Tatars during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in War, Technology and Society in the Middle East V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, eds. (London: Oxford University Press, 1975) and W. Majewski, "The Polish Art of War in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Republic of Nobles. Studies in Polish History to 1864, J. K. Fedorowicz, ed. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 179-97.
30. Throughout this essay court or elite (rather than the problematic nobility or aristocracy) will denote the Muscovite courtiers who ruled the empire, the so-called councilor ranks (dumnye chiny) On them see N. S. Kollmann, Kinship and Politics: the Making of the Muscovite Political System 1375-1547 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987) and R. Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors. The Boyar Elite in Russia, 1613-1689 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983).
31. Throughout this essay court or elite (rather than the problematic nobility or aristocracy) will denote the Muscovite courtiers who ruled the empire, the so-called councilor ranks (dumnye chiny) On them see N. S. Kollmann, Kinship and Politics: the Making of the Muscovite Political System 1375-1547 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987) and R. Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors. The Boyar Elite in Russia, 1613-1689 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983).
32. On the difficulty of interpreting the sources for the mid-century reforms, see E. L. Keenan's long review of N. E. Nosov, Stanovlenie soslovno-predstavitel'nykh uchrezhdenii v Rossii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1969) in Kritika 7-8 (1970-72), 67-96.
33. On the difficulty of interpreting the sources for the mid-century reforms, see E. L. Keenan's long review of N. E. Nosov, Stanovlenie soslovno-predstavitel'nykh uchrezhdenii v Rossii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1969) in Kritika 7-8 (1970-72), 67-96.
34. On the rise of precedence disputes and their interference with military action, see A. Kleimola, "Status, Place, and Politics: the Rise of Mestnichestvo during the Boiarskoe Pravlenie." Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 27 (1980), 195-214. On measures to curb precedence disputes over military appointments, see A. A. Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform 50-kh godov XVI v.," Istoricheskie zapiski, 55 (1956), 344-48.
35. On the rise of precedence disputes and their interference with military action, see A. Kleimola, "Status, Place, and Politics: the Rise of Mestnichestvo during the Boiarskoe Pravlenie." Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 27 (1980), 195-214. On measures to curb precedence disputes over military appointments, see A. A. Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform 50-kh godov XVI v.," Istoricheskie zapiski, 55 (1956), 344-48.
36. See A. A. Zimin, ed., Tysiachnaia kniga 1550 g. i dvorovaia tetrad' 50-kh godov XVI veka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1950), 3-19, and Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform 50-kh godov XVI v.," 348. As Zimin demonstrates, it is unclear whether this reform was carried out. Nonetheless, the intentions of the court are made clear by the plan itself.
37. See A. A. Zimin, ed., Tysiachnaia kniga 1550 g. i dvorovaia tetrad' 50-kh godov XVI veka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1950), 3-19, and Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform 50-kh godov XVI v.," 348. As Zimin demonstrates, it is unclear whether this reform was carried out. Nonetheless, the intentions of the court are made clear by the plan itself.
38. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
39. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
40. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
41. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
42. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
43. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
44. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
45. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
46. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
47. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
48. The date of the Military Service Chancellery's foundation is unclear, again due to lack of sources. Many scholars have argued that a predecessor of the military office existed as early as the 1530s. See V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962), 111; I. I. Verner, O vremeni iprichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikhprikazov (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1907), 55-56; P. B. Brown, "Muscovite Government Bureaus," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 324; and N. P. Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki XVI veka (St. Petersburg: V. S. Balashev, 1888), 80. However the evidence is far from clear. The first unassailable reference to military scribes (razriadnye d'iaki) is from 1563. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458, and A. A. Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi," Doklady i soobshcheniia Institut istorii Akademiia Nauk SSSR, fasc. 3 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945), 169-70. The phrase military office (razriadnaia izba) appears in 1566. See Zimin, "O slozhenii," 169 (mistakenly writing 1556 for 1566) and Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 458. The term razriad was used to denote "Military Service Chancellery" for the first time in 1571. See Likhachev, Razriadnye d'iaki, 462, and Zimin "O slozhenii," 169-70.
49. See Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform," 354-8; A. V. Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily Russkogo gosudarstva v XV-XVII vv. (Moscow: Voennoe izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Oborony SSSR, 1954), 46-52; R. Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 161-5; and J. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar. Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 60-61.
50. See Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform," 354-8; A. V. Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily Russkogo gosudarstva v XV-XVII vv. (Moscow: Voennoe izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Oborony SSSR, 1954), 46-52; R. Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 161-5; and J. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar. Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 60-61.
51. See Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform," 354-8; A. V. Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily Russkogo gosudarstva v XV-XVII vv. (Moscow: Voennoe izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Oborony SSSR, 1954), 46-52; R. Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 161-5; and J. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar. Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 60-61.
52. See Zimin, "K istorii voennykh reform," 354-8; A. V. Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily Russkogo gosudarstva v XV-XVII vv. (Moscow: Voennoe izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Oborony SSSR, 1954), 46-52; R. Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 161-5; and J. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar. Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 60-61.
53. The commutation of provender rents (kormlenie) is prescribed in the "edict on provender rents and service" (prigovor o kormleniiakh i sluzhbe) of 1555-56. The edict is found in the Nikonian Chronicle reprinted in Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei (Moscow, 1846-), vol. 13, 267-9. For discussions of it, see A. A. Zimin, "'Prigovor' 1555-1556 i likvidatsiia sistemy kormlenii v Russkom gosudarstve," Istoriia SSSR (1958), no. 1, 178-82; S.O. Shmidt, "K istorii zemskoi reformy (Sobor 1555-1556 g.)," in Goroda feodal'noi Rossii. Sbornik slatei pamiati N. B. Ustiugova, V. I. Shunkov, ed. et al. (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), 125-34; and Nosov, Stanovlenie soslovno-predstavitel'nykh uchrezhdenii v Rossii, 367-86.
54. The commutation of provender rents (kormlenie) is prescribed in the "edict on provender rents and service" (prigovor o kormleniiakh i sluzhbe) of 1555-56. The edict is found in the Nikonian Chronicle reprinted in Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei (Moscow, 1846-), vol. 13, 267-9. For discussions of it, see A. A. Zimin, "'Prigovor' 1555-1556 i likvidatsiia sistemy kormlenii v Russkom gosudarstve," Istoriia SSSR (1958), no. 1, 178-82; S.O. Shmidt, "K istorii zemskoi reformy (Sobor 1555-1556 g.)," in Goroda feodal'noi Rossii. Sbornik slatei pamiati N. B. Ustiugova, V. I. Shunkov, ed. et al. (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), 125-34; and Nosov, Stanovlenie soslovno-predstavitel'nykh uchrezhdenii v Rossii, 367-86.
55. The commutation of provender rents (kormlenie) is prescribed in the "edict on provender rents and service" (prigovor o kormleniiakh i sluzhbe) of 1555-56. The edict is found in the Nikonian Chronicle reprinted in Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei (Moscow, 1846-), vol. 13, 267-9. For discussions of it, see A. A. Zimin, "'Prigovor' 1555-1556 i likvidatsiia sistemy kormlenii v Russkom gosudarstve," Istoriia SSSR (1958), no. 1, 178-82; S.O. Shmidt, "K istorii zemskoi reformy (Sobor 1555-1556 g.)," in Goroda feodal'noi Rossii. Sbornik slatei pamiati N. B. Ustiugova, V. I. Shunkov, ed. et al. (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), 125-34; and Nosov, Stanovlenie soslovno-predstavitel'nykh uchrezhdenii v Rossii, 367-86.
56. The commutation of provender rents (kormlenie) is prescribed in the "edict on provender rents and service" (prigovor o kormleniiakh i sluzhbe) of 1555-56. The edict is found in the Nikonian Chronicle reprinted in Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei (Moscow, 1846-), vol. 13, 267-9. For discussions of it, see A. A. Zimin, "'Prigovor' 1555-1556 i likvidatsiia sistemy kormlenii v Russkom gosudarstve," Istoriia SSSR (1958), no. 1, 178-82; S.O. Shmidt, "K istorii zemskoi reformy (Sobor 1555-1556 g.)," in Goroda feodal'noi Rossii. Sbornik slatei pamiati N. B. Ustiugova, V. I. Shunkov, ed. et al. (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), 125-34; and Nosov, Stanovlenie soslovno-predstavitel'nykh uchrezhdenii v Rossii, 367-86.
57. Universal service according to graded landholding schedules is prescribed in the edict on "provender rents and service." See Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei, vol. 13, 269. See Hellie, Enserfment, 36ff. The effect of the reform can perhaps be seen in the appearance (Kashira, 1556) of regional muster records (desiatnia) which list servitors according to rank and land entitlements. See M. G. Krotov "K istorii sostavleniia desiaten (vtoraia polovina XVI v.)," in Issledovaniia po istochnikovedeniiu istorii SSSR dooktiabr'skogo perioda. Sbornik stalei, V. I. Buganov, ed. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1984), 56-72.
58. Universal service according to graded landholding schedules is prescribed in the edict on "provender rents and service." See Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei, vol. 13, 269. See Hellie, Enserfment, 36ff. The effect of the reform can perhaps be seen in the appearance (Kashira, 1556) of regional muster records (desiatnia) which list servitors according to rank and land entitlements. See M. G. Krotov "K istorii sostavleniia desiaten (vtoraia polovina XVI v.)," in Issledovaniia po istochnikovedeniiu istorii SSSR dooktiabr'skogo perioda. Sbornik stalei, V. I. Buganov, ed. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1984), 56-72.
59. Universal service according to graded landholding schedules is prescribed in the edict on "provender rents and service." See Polnoe sobranie Russkikh letopisei, vol. 13, 269. See Hellie, Enserfment, 36ff. The effect of the reform can perhaps be seen in the appearance (Kashira, 1556) of regional muster records (desiatnia) which list servitors according to rank and land entitlements. See M. G. Krotov "K istorii sostavleniia desiaten (vtoraia polovina XVI v.)," in Issledovaniia po istochnikovedeniiu istorii SSSR dooktiabr'skogo perioda. Sbornik stalei, V. I. Buganov, ed. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1984), 56-72.
60. See M. Zlotnik, "Muscovite Fiscal Policy: 1462-1584," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 6:2 (1979), 243-58.
61. On introduction of the new-model forces in the seventeenth century, see Chernov Vooruzhennye sily, 133-98; Hellie, Enserfment, 167-201; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 80-94.
62. On introduction of the new-model forces in the seventeenth century, see Chernov Vooruzhennye sily, 133-98; Hellie, Enserfment, 167-201; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 80-94.
63. On introduction of the new-model forces in the seventeenth century, see Chernov Vooruzhennye sily, 133-98; Hellie, Enserfment, 167-201; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 80-94.
64. Hellie, Enserfment, 136-9, 225, and 247.
65. Ibid 224, on petitions and absenteeism.
66. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
67. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
68. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
69. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
70. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
71. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
72. Throughout this essay, gentry refers to the landed middle-ranking servitors (dvoriane and deti boiarskie) who made up the bulk of the traditional cavalry host. On them, see N. PavlovSil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi. Proizkhozhdenie russkogo dvorianstva (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografiia, 1898); V. I. Novitskii, Vybornoe i bol'shoe dvorianstvo XVI-XVII vekov (Kiev Tip. 1-i Kievsk. arteli pechat. dela, 1915); A. A. Novosel'skii, "Praviashchie gruppy v sluzhilom 'gorode' XVII v.," Uchenye zapiski RANION, 5 (1929), 315-35, Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 21-47; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 13-55. V. Kivelson "Community and State: the Political Culture of Seventeenth-Century Muscovy and the Provincial Gentry of the Vladimir-Suzdal' Region" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, Stanford University, 1987); and C. B. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe. Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
73. Muscovy had a sort of private property. See G. Weickhardt, "The Pre-Petrine Law of Property," Slavic Review, 52:4 (1993), 663-79 and idem, "Due Process and Equal Justice in Muscovite Law," Russian Review, 51:4 (1992), 463-80. On the effects of partible inheritance, see V. Kivelson, "The Effects of Partible Inheritance: Gentry Families and the State in Muscovy," Russian Review, 53 (1994), 1-16.
74. Muscovy had a sort of private property. See G. Weickhardt, "The Pre-Petrine Law of Property," Slavic Review, 52:4 (1993), 663-79 and idem, "Due Process and Equal Justice in Muscovite Law," Russian Review, 51:4 (1992), 463-80. On the effects of partible inheritance, see V. Kivelson, "The Effects of Partible Inheritance: Gentry Families and the State in Muscovy," Russian Review, 53 (1994), 1-16.
75. Muscovy had a sort of private property. See G. Weickhardt, "The Pre-Petrine Law of Property," Slavic Review, 52:4 (1993), 663-79 and idem, "Due Process and Equal Justice in Muscovite Law," Russian Review, 51:4 (1992), 463-80. On the effects of partible inheritance, see V. Kivelson, "The Effects of Partible Inheritance: Gentry Families and the State in Muscovy," Russian Review, 53 (1994), 1-16.
76. On the merchants and urban classes in general, see H.-J. Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft im Moskauer Reich. Zar und Zemlja in der altrussischen Herrschaftsverfassung 1613-1668 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974); R. Hellie, "The Stratification of Muscovite Society: the Townsmen," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 5:2 (1978), 119-75; J. M. Hittle, The Service City. The State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); P. Bushkovitch, The Merchants of Moscow; 1580-1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
77. On the merchants and urban classes in general, see H.-J. Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft im Moskauer Reich. Zar und Zemlja in der altrussischen Herrschaftsverfassung 1613-1668 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974); R. Hellie, "The Stratification of Muscovite Society: the Townsmen," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 5:2 (1978), 119-75; J. M. Hittle, The Service City. The State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); P. Bushkovitch, The Merchants of Moscow; 1580-1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
78. On the merchants and urban classes in general, see H.-J. Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft im Moskauer Reich. Zar und Zemlja in der altrussischen Herrschaftsverfassung 1613-1668 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974); R. Hellie, "The Stratification of Muscovite Society: the Townsmen," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 5:2 (1978), 119-75; J. M. Hittle, The Service City. The State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); P. Bushkovitch, The Merchants of Moscow; 1580-1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
79. On the merchants and urban classes in general, see H.-J. Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft im Moskauer Reich. Zar und Zemlja in der altrussischen Herrschaftsverfassung 1613-1668 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974); R. Hellie, "The Stratification of Muscovite Society: the Townsmen," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 5:2 (1978), 119-75; J. M. Hittle, The Service City. The State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); P. Bushkovitch, The Merchants of Moscow; 1580-1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
80. On consensus among the court elite, see H. Rüss, Adel und Adelsoppositionen in Moskauer Staat (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975); Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 149-52 and 184; and Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 34-64.
81. On consensus among the court elite, see H. Rüss, Adel und Adelsoppositionen in Moskauer Staat (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975); Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 149-52 and 184; and Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 34-64.
82. On consensus among the court elite, see H. Rüss, Adel und Adelsoppositionen in Moskauer Staat (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975); Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 149-52 and 184; and Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 34-64.
83. See especially Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime, 48-54 and 106-8.
84. On provincial corporations, see B. Davies, "The Role of Town Governors in the Defense and Military Colonization of Muscovy's Southern Frontier: The Case of Kozlov, 1635-38 (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1983); V. Kivelson, "Community and'State." Both of these dissertations will shortly be published. Also see B. Davies, "Coercion and Community Interest Representation in Muscovite Local Government," Soviet Studies in History, 26:3 (1987-88), 3-19.
85. On provincial corporations, see B. Davies, "The Role of Town Governors in the Defense and Military Colonization of Muscovy's Southern Frontier: The Case of Kozlov, 1635-38 (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1983); V. Kivelson, "Community and'State." Both of these dissertations will shortly be published. Also see B. Davies, "Coercion and Community Interest Representation in Muscovite Local Government," Soviet Studies in History, 26:3 (1987-88), 3-19.
86. On provincial corporations, see B. Davies, "The Role of Town Governors in the Defense and Military Colonization of Muscovy's Southern Frontier: The Case of Kozlov, 1635-38 (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1983); V. Kivelson, "Community and'State." Both of these dissertations will shortly be published. Also see B. Davies, "Coercion and Community Interest Representation in Muscovite Local Government," Soviet Studies in History, 26:3 (1987-88), 3-19.
87. See E M Hulbert, "Sixteenth-Century Russian Assemblies of the Land: Their Composition Organization, and Competence" (Ph. D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago 1970); J. L. H. Keep, "The Decline of the Zemsky Sobor," Slavonic and East European Review 36 (1957-58) 100-36; Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft, passim, M. Szeftel, "La participation des assemblées populaires dans la gouvernement central de la Russie depuis l'époque Kiévienne jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Gouvernés et gouvernants, 4 (1984), 239-65. For a review of the recent Russian literature, see P. Brown, "The Zemskii Sobor in Recent Soviet Historiography," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:1 (1983), 77-90
88. See E M Hulbert, "Sixteenth-Century Russian Assemblies of the Land: Their Composition Organization, and Competence" (Ph. D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago 1970); J. L. H. Keep, "The Decline of the Zemsky Sobor," Slavonic and East European Review 36 (1957-58) 100-36; Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft, passim, M. Szeftel, "La participation des assemblées populaires dans la gouvernement central de la Russie depuis l'époque Kiévienne jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Gouvernés et gouvernants, 4 (1984), 239-65. For a review of the recent Russian literature, see P. Brown, "The Zemskii Sobor in Recent Soviet Historiography," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:1 (1983), 77-90
89. See E M Hulbert, "Sixteenth-Century Russian Assemblies of the Land: Their Composition Organization, and Competence" (Ph. D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago 1970); J. L. H. Keep, "The Decline of the Zemsky Sobor," Slavonic and East European Review 36 (1957-58) 100-36; Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft, passim, M. Szeftel, "La participation des assemblées populaires dans la gouvernement central de la Russie depuis l'époque Kiévienne jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Gouvernés et gouvernants, 4 (1984), 239-65. For a review of the recent Russian literature, see P. Brown, "The Zemskii Sobor in Recent Soviet Historiography," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:1 (1983), 77-90
90. See E M Hulbert, "Sixteenth-Century Russian Assemblies of the Land: Their Composition Organization, and Competence" (Ph. D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago 1970); J. L. H. Keep, "The Decline of the Zemsky Sobor," Slavonic and East European Review 36 (1957-58) 100-36; Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft, passim, M. Szeftel, "La participation des assemblées populaires dans la gouvernement central de la Russie depuis l'époque Kiévienne jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Gouvernés et gouvernants, 4 (1984), 239-65. For a review of the recent Russian literature, see P. Brown, "The Zemskii Sobor in Recent Soviet Historiography," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:1 (1983), 77-90
91. See E M Hulbert, "Sixteenth-Century Russian Assemblies of the Land: Their Composition Organization, and Competence" (Ph. D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago 1970); J. L. H. Keep, "The Decline of the Zemsky Sobor," Slavonic and East European Review 36 (1957-58) 100-36; Torke, Die staatsbedingte Gesellschaft, passim, M. Szeftel, "La participation des assemblées populaires dans la gouvernement central de la Russie depuis l'époque Kiévienne jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Gouvernés et gouvernants, 4 (1984), 239-65. For a review of the recent Russian literature, see P. Brown, "The Zemskii Sobor in Recent Soviet Historiography," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:1 (1983), 77-90
92. On Muscovite political ideology, see E. Keenan, "Muscovite Political Folkways. Russian Review 45(1986) 115-81; D. Rowland, "The Problem of Advice in Muscovite Tales about the Time of Troubles," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 6:2 (1979) 259-83, D. Rowland, "Did Russian Literary Ideology Place Any Limits on the Power of the Tsar (1540s-1660s)?," Russian Review, 49:2 (1990), 125-55; and V. Kivelson, "The Devil Stole His Mind: The Tsar and the 1648 Moscow Uprising," American Historical Review, 98:3 (1993), 733-56.
93. On Muscovite political ideology, see E. Keenan, "Muscovite Political Folkways. Russian Review 45(1986) 115-81; D. Rowland, "The Problem of Advice in Muscovite Tales about the Time of Troubles," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 6:2 (1979) 259-83, D. Rowland, "Did Russian Literary Ideology Place Any Limits on the Power of the Tsar (1540s-1660s)?," Russian Review, 49:2 (1990), 125-55; and V. Kivelson, "The Devil Stole His Mind: The Tsar and the 1648 Moscow Uprising," American Historical Review, 98:3 (1993), 733-56.
94. On Muscovite political ideology, see E. Keenan, "Muscovite Political Folkways. Russian Review 45(1986) 115-81; D. Rowland, "The Problem of Advice in Muscovite Tales about the Time of Troubles," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 6:2 (1979) 259-83, D. Rowland, "Did Russian Literary Ideology Place Any Limits on the Power of the Tsar (1540s-1660s)?," Russian Review, 49:2 (1990), 125-55; and V. Kivelson, "The Devil Stole His Mind: The Tsar and the 1648 Moscow Uprising," American Historical Review, 98:3 (1993), 733-56.
95. On Muscovite political ideology, see E. Keenan, "Muscovite Political Folkways. Russian Review 45(1986) 115-81; D. Rowland, "The Problem of Advice in Muscovite Tales about the Time of Troubles," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 6:2 (1979) 259-83, D. Rowland, "Did Russian Literary Ideology Place Any Limits on the Power of the Tsar (1540s-1660s)?," Russian Review, 49:2 (1990), 125-55; and V. Kivelson, "The Devil Stole His Mind: The Tsar and the 1648 Moscow Uprising," American Historical Review, 98:3 (1993), 733-56.
96. Hellie, Enserfment, 211-26.
97. Throughout the seventeenth century the gentry petitioned the government for all three: cash entitlements (oklady), service estates (pomest'ia), and elimination of limitations on the recovery of fugitive serfs. On these petitions, see Hellie, Enserfment, 130, 131, 133, 136, and 239-40.
98. Hellie demonstrates that the government bullied the cavalry into the new units. He also provides data which show movement into the new army: "By 1672, 50.3 percent (19,003) of the dvoriane and deli boiarskie in seventy-seven southern towns were in new-formation regiments, compared with only 4.5 percent in 1651. In 1672 the rest of them were in town defensive service (14, 935, or 39.4 percent), and only a handful, 3,921 (10.3 percent) were in the old regimental sotennaia sluzhba, which was becoming extinct." See Enserfment, 219. Also see Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily, 161; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 85-87; and Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe, 34-36 and 76-87
99. Hellie demonstrates that the government bullied the cavalry into the new units. He also provides data which show movement into the new army: "By 1672, 50.3 percent (19,003) of the dvoriane and deli boiarskie in seventy-seven southern towns were in new-formation regiments, compared with only 4.5 percent in 1651. In 1672 the rest of them were in town defensive service (14, 935, or 39.4 percent), and only a handful, 3,921 (10.3 percent) were in the old regimental sotennaia sluzhba, which was becoming extinct." See Enserfment, 219. Also see Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily, 161; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 85-87; and Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe, 34-36 and 76-87
100. Hellie demonstrates that the government bullied the cavalry into the new units. He also provides data which show movement into the new army: "By 1672, 50.3 percent (19,003) of the dvoriane and deli boiarskie in seventy-seven southern towns were in new-formation regiments, compared with only 4.5 percent in 1651. In 1672 the rest of them were in town defensive service (14, 935, or 39.4 percent), and only a handful, 3,921 (10.3 percent) were in the old regimental sotennaia sluzhba, which was becoming extinct." See Enserfment, 219. Also see Chernov, Vooruzhennye sily, 161; Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 85-87; and Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe, 34-36 and 76-87
101. Entire peasant communities were also forced into the new units. See B. Davies, "Village into Garrison: The Militarized Peasant Communities of Southern Muscovy," Russian Review, 51:4 (1992), 481-501.
102. On Muscovite infantry forces prior to 1550, see Hellie, Enserfment, 160. On the early grand princely secretariat, see V. A. Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei (seredina XIV V.-1425 g.)," Istoricheskie zapiski, 103 (1979), 325-49; A. K. Leont'ev, Obrazovanie prikaznoi systemy upravleniia v Russkom gosudarstve. Iz istorii sozdaniia tsentralizovannogo gosudarstvennogo apparata v kontse XV-pervoi polovine XVI v. (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 1961); G. Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy. The Age of Ivan III, in Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 39 (1986), 273-82; Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi"; and Verner, O vremeni i prichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikh prikazov.
103. On Muscovite infantry forces prior to 1550, see Hellie, Enserfment, 160. On the early grand princely secretariat, see V. A. Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei (seredina XIV V.-1425 g.)," Istoricheskie zapiski, 103 (1979), 325-49; A. K. Leont'ev, Obrazovanie prikaznoi systemy upravleniia v Russkom gosudarstve. Iz istorii sozdaniia tsentralizovannogo gosudarstvennogo apparata v kontse XV-pervoi polovine XVI v. (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 1961); G. Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy. The Age of Ivan III, in Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 39 (1986), 273-82; Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi"; and Verner, O vremeni i prichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikh prikazov.
104. On Muscovite infantry forces prior to 1550, see Hellie, Enserfment, 160. On the early grand princely secretariat, see V. A. Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei (seredina XIV V.-1425 g.)," Istoricheskie zapiski, 103 (1979), 325-49; A. K. Leont'ev, Obrazovanie prikaznoi systemy upravleniia v Russkom gosudarstve. Iz istorii sozdaniia tsentralizovannogo gosudarstvennogo apparata v kontse XV-pervoi polovine XVI v. (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 1961); G. Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy. The Age of Ivan III, in Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 39 (1986), 273-82; Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi"; and Verner, O vremeni i prichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikh prikazov.
105. On Muscovite infantry forces prior to 1550, see Hellie, Enserfment, 160. On the early grand princely secretariat, see V. A. Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei (seredina XIV V.-1425 g.)," Istoricheskie zapiski, 103 (1979), 325-49; A. K. Leont'ev, Obrazovanie prikaznoi systemy upravleniia v Russkom gosudarstve. Iz istorii sozdaniia tsentralizovannogo gosudarstvennogo apparata v kontse XV-pervoi polovine XVI v. (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 1961); G. Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy. The Age of Ivan III, in Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 39 (1986), 273-82; Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi"; and Verner, O vremeni i prichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikh prikazov.
106. On Muscovite infantry forces prior to 1550, see Hellie, Enserfment, 160. On the early grand princely secretariat, see V. A. Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei (seredina XIV V.-1425 g.)," Istoricheskie zapiski, 103 (1979), 325-49; A. K. Leont'ev, Obrazovanie prikaznoi systemy upravleniia v Russkom gosudarstve. Iz istorii sozdaniia tsentralizovannogo gosudarstvennogo apparata v kontse XV-pervoi polovine XVI v. (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 1961); G. Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy. The Age of Ivan III, in Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 39 (1986), 273-82; Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi"; and Verner, O vremeni i prichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikh prikazov.
107. On Muscovite infantry forces prior to 1550, see Hellie, Enserfment, 160. On the early grand princely secretariat, see V. A. Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei (seredina XIV V.-1425 g.)," Istoricheskie zapiski, 103 (1979), 325-49; A. K. Leont'ev, Obrazovanie prikaznoi systemy upravleniia v Russkom gosudarstve. Iz istorii sozdaniia tsentralizovannogo gosudarstvennogo apparata v kontse XV-pervoi polovine XVI v. (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 1961); G. Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy. The Age of Ivan III, in Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 39 (1986), 273-82; Zimin, "O slozhenii prikaznoi sistemy na Rusi"; and Verner, O vremeni i prichinakh obrazovaniia Moskovskikh prikazov.
108. Hellie, Enserfment, 161.
109. Ibid., 170-1.
110. On the prikazy, see P. B. Brown, "Early Modem Russian Bureaucracy: the Evolution of the Chancellery System from Ivan III to Peter the Great, 1478-1717" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1978) and idem, "Muscovite Government Bureaus." On their staffs, see B. Plavsic, "Seventeenth-Century Chanceries and their Staffs," in Russian Officialdom, W. M. Pintner and D. K. Rowney, eds. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 19-45, and N. F. Demidova, Sluzhilaia biurokratiia v Rossii XVII v. i ee rol' v formirovanii absoliutizma (Moscow: Nauka, 1987).
111. On the prikazy, see P. B. Brown, "Early Modem Russian Bureaucracy: the Evolution of the Chancellery System from Ivan III to Peter the Great, 1478-1717" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1978) and idem, "Muscovite Government Bureaus." On their staffs, see B. Plavsic, "Seventeenth-Century Chanceries and their Staffs," in Russian Officialdom, W. M. Pintner and D. K. Rowney, eds. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 19-45, and N. F. Demidova, Sluzhilaia biurokratiia v Rossii XVII v. i ee rol' v formirovanii absoliutizma (Moscow: Nauka, 1987).
112. On the prikazy, see P. B. Brown, "Early Modem Russian Bureaucracy: the Evolution of the Chancellery System from Ivan III to Peter the Great, 1478-1717" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1978) and idem, "Muscovite Government Bureaus." On their staffs, see B. Plavsic, "Seventeenth-Century Chanceries and their Staffs," in Russian Officialdom, W. M. Pintner and D. K. Rowney, eds. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 19-45, and N. F. Demidova, Sluzhilaia biurokratiia v Rossii XVII v. i ee rol' v formirovanii absoliutizma (Moscow: Nauka, 1987).
113. On the prikazy, see P. B. Brown, "Early Modem Russian Bureaucracy: the Evolution of the Chancellery System from Ivan III to Peter the Great, 1478-1717" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of Chicago, 1978) and idem, "Muscovite Government Bureaus." On their staffs, see B. Plavsic, "Seventeenth-Century Chanceries and their Staffs," in Russian Officialdom, W. M. Pintner and D. K. Rowney, eds. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 19-45, and N. F. Demidova, Sluzhilaia biurokratiia v Rossii XVII v. i ee rol' v formirovanii absoliutizma (Moscow: Nauka, 1987).
114. Hellie discusses this at some length. See R. Hellie, "Warfare, Changing Military Technology, and the Evolution of Muscovite Society," in Tools of War. Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of war, 1445-1871, J. A. Lynn, ed. (Urbana: University, of Illinois Press, 1990), 74-99.
115. See R. Hellie, ed. and trans., Text and Translation, pt. 1 of The Muscovite Law Code (Ulozhenie) of 1649, (Irvine, CA: Charles Schlacks, 1988).
116. The partial exceptions of Novgorod and Pskow - neither of which were Muscovite prior to the later fifteenth century - must be noted. Significantly, both cities had close ties to the lively Baltic trade. The simplicity of Muscovite society has been described in many places, most notably in D. H. Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), which uses law as an index of social complexity and finds Muscovy to be comparatively simple.
117. This is V. O. Kliuchevskii's famous formulation. See "Istoriia soslovii v Rossii," in Sochineniia, 9 vols. (Moscow: Mysl', 1990), vol. 6:353.
118. For a general treatment, see Pavlov-Sil'vanskii, Gosudarevy sluzhilye liudi.
119. See Hittle, The Service City. 21-76.
120. See R. Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (Chicago and London, 1982).
121. T. Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," Slavic Review, 28 (June 1969), 185-208.
122. See Hellie, Enserfment, 167-8, on the translation of Western drill manuals.
123. D. Smith, "Muscovite Logistics, 1462-1598," Slavonic and East European Review, 71:1 (January 1993), 35-65.
124. M. Poe, "Elite Service Registry in Muscovy, 1500-1700," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 21:3 (1994), 251-88.
125. Reviews of the history of Muscovite government documentation are available in Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei," and Poe, "Elite Service Registry in Muscovy."
126. Reviews of the history of Muscovite government documentation are available in Vodov, "Zarozhdenie kantseliarii Moskovskikh kniazei," and Poe, "Elite Service Registry in Muscovy."
127. On the early use of legal documents, see Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia. The paucity of Muscovite documents of all types to the mid-sixteenth century is well-known. The best treatment of the meager documentary legacy of early Muscovy remains L. V. Cherepnin, Russkie feodal'nye arkhivy XIV-XV vv., 2 vols. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1948). For a general description of early Muscovite administration, see S. B. Veselovskii, Feodal'noe zemlevladenie v severovostochnoi Rusi (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1947). Also see Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 24-36.
128. On the early use of legal documents, see Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia. The paucity of Muscovite documents of all types to the mid-sixteenth century is well-known. The best treatment of the meager documentary legacy of early Muscovy remains L. V. Cherepnin, Russkie feodal'nye arkhivy XIV-XV vv., 2 vols. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1948). For a general description of early Muscovite administration, see S. B. Veselovskii, Feodal'noe zemlevladenie v severovostochnoi Rusi (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1947). Also see Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 24-36.
129. On the early use of legal documents, see Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia. The paucity of Muscovite documents of all types to the mid-sixteenth century is well-known. The best treatment of the meager documentary legacy of early Muscovy remains L. V. Cherepnin, Russkie feodal'nye arkhivy XIV-XV vv., 2 vols. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1948). For a general description of early Muscovite administration, see S. B. Veselovskii, Feodal'noe zemlevladenie v severovostochnoi Rusi (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1947). Also see Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 24-36.
130. On the early use of legal documents, see Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia. The paucity of Muscovite documents of all types to the mid-sixteenth century is well-known. The best treatment of the meager documentary legacy of early Muscovy remains L. V. Cherepnin, Russkie feodal'nye arkhivy XIV-XV vv., 2 vols. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1948). For a general description of early Muscovite administration, see S. B. Veselovskii, Feodal'noe zemlevladenie v severovostochnoi Rusi (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1947). Also see Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, 24-36.
131. See M. Poe, "Muscovite Personnel Records, 1475-1550: New Light on the Early Evolution of Russian Bureaucracy," in Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas (forthcoming).
132. Alef cites the following figures concerning the number of state scribes (d'iaki) at court: 1470s: 14 d'iaki; 1480s: 10 d'iaki; 1490s: 17 d'iaki; and 1500-05: 20 d'iaki. See Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy, 273. Alef's data is drawn from A. A. Zimin, "D'iacheskii apparat v Rossii vtoroi poloviny XV - pervoi treti XVl v.," Istoricheskie zapiski, 87 (1971), 219-86.
133. Alef cites the following figures concerning the number of state scribes (d'iaki) at court: 1470s: 14 d'iaki; 1480s: 10 d'iaki; 1490s: 17 d'iaki; and 1500-05: 20 d'iaki. See Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy, 273. Alef's data is drawn from A. A. Zimin, "D'iacheskii apparat v Rossii vtoroi poloviny XV - pervoi treti XVl v.," Istoricheskie zapiski, 87 (1971), 219-86.
134. See Bushkovitch, The Merchants of Muscovy, 1. Also see S. Baron, "Who Were the Gosti?," California Slavic Studies, 7 (1973), 1-40.
135. See Bushkovitch, The Merchants of Muscovy, 1. Also see S. Baron, "Who Were the Gosti?," California Slavic Studies, 7 (1973), 1-40.
136. The explosion of literate administration has not gone unnoticed. See Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 603, and Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia, 153-63. For a general treatment of Muscovite documentation, see S. O. Shmidt and S. E. Kniaz'kov, Dokumenty deloproizvodstva pravitel' stvennykh uchrezhdenii Rossii XVI-XVII vv. (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi Istoriko Arkhivnyi Institut, 1985), 19-20 and 37-38.
137. The explosion of literate administration has not gone unnoticed. See Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 603, and Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia, 153-63. For a general treatment of Muscovite documentation, see S. O. Shmidt and S. E. Kniaz'kov, Dokumenty deloproizvodstva pravitel' stvennykh uchrezhdenii Rossii XVI-XVII vv. (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi Istoriko Arkhivnyi Institut, 1985), 19-20 and 37-38.
138. The explosion of literate administration has not gone unnoticed. See Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 603, and Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia, 153-63. For a general treatment of Muscovite documentation, see S. O. Shmidt and S. E. Kniaz'kov, Dokumenty deloproizvodstva pravitel' stvennykh uchrezhdenii Rossii XVI-XVII vv. (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi Istoriko Arkhivnyi Institut, 1985), 19-20 and 37-38.
139. Shmidt and Kniaz'kov, Dokumenty deloproizvodstva, 19-20 and 37-38.
140. Ibid., 52-53.
141. Ibid., 42-43. Also see H. L. Eaton, "Cadasters and Censuses of Muscovy," Slavic Review, 26:1 (March 1967), 54-69, and V. B. Pavlov-Sil'vanskii, Pistsovye knigi Rossii XVI v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1991).
142. Ibid., 42-43. Also see H. L. Eaton, "Cadasters and Censuses of Muscovy," Slavic Review, 26:1 (March 1967), 54-69, and V. B. Pavlov-Sil'vanskii, Pistsovye knigi Rossii XVI v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1991).
143. Ibid., 42-43. Also see H. L. Eaton, "Cadasters and Censuses of Muscovy," Slavic Review, 26:1 (March 1967), 54-69, and V. B. Pavlov-Sil'vanskii, Pistsovye knigi Rossii XVI v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1991).
144. In 1626 there were 623 chancellery people (prikaznye liudi) serving in Moscow. By 1698 there were 2,739. In the 1640s, 774 secretaries and under-secretaries were employed in the provincial offices; in the 1690s, there were over 1,900. See Demidova, Sluzhilaia biurokratiia, 23 and 37.
145. In 1550 there were no chancelleries (prikazy); in 1626 there were forty-four; and in 1698 there were fifty-five, each with a more or less distinct territorial or functional sphere of activity. See Demidova, Sluzhilaia biurokratiia, 23.
146. See R. Crummey, "The Origins of the Noble Official: The Boyar Elite, 1613," in Russian Officialdom, 46-75; G. G. Weickhardt, "Bureaucrats and Boiars in the Muscovite Tsardom," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 331-56; and B. O'Brien, "Muscovite Prikaz Administration of the Seventeenth Century: The Quality of Leadership." Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 38 (1986). 223-35.
147. See R. Crummey, "The Origins of the Noble Official: The Boyar Elite, 1613," in Russian Officialdom, 46-75; G. G. Weickhardt, "Bureaucrats and Boiars in the Muscovite Tsardom," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 331-56; and B. O'Brien, "Muscovite Prikaz Administration of the Seventeenth Century: The Quality of Leadership." Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 38 (1986). 223-35.
148. See R. Crummey, "The Origins of the Noble Official: The Boyar Elite, 1613," in Russian Officialdom, 46-75; G. G. Weickhardt, "Bureaucrats and Boiars in the Muscovite Tsardom," Russian History/Histoire Russe, 10:3 (1983), 331-56; and B. O'Brien, "Muscovite Prikaz Administration of the Seventeenth Century: The Quality of Leadership." Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, 38 (1986). 223-35.
149. This idea has its origins in skewed early modern Western descriptions of Muscovy. See M. Poe, "'Russian Despotism': the Origins and Dissemination of an Early Modern Commonplace" (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of California, Berkeley, 1993);
150. and G. Scheidegger, Perverses Abendland-barbarisches Rusland Begegnungen des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts im Schatten Kutureller Missverständuisse (Zürich: Chronos Verlag, 1993).
151. For modern uses of the idea, see Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime:
152. J. Pelenski, "Muscovite Russia and Poland Lithuania, 1450-1600," in State and Society in Europe from the Fifteenth-Eighteenth Century, J. Pelenski, ed. (Warsaw: Warsaw University Press, 1980), 93-120;
153. J. Pelenski, "State and Society in Muscovite Russia and the Mongol-Turkic System in the Sixteenth Century," Forschungen zur , osteuropäischen Geschichte, 27 (1980), 156-67;
154. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 3 and 32.
155. This argument is implied in several comparative treatments, notably Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development"; Bendix, Kings or People, 115-23: Anderson, Lineages, 328-41. The most complete rendition is found in Downing, The Military Revolution, 38-44.
156. This argument is implied in several comparative treatments, notably Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development"; Bendix, Kings or People, 115-23: Anderson, Lineages, 328-41. The most complete rendition is found in Downing, The Military Revolution, 38-44.
157. This argument is implied in several comparative treatments, notably Hintze, "The Formation of States and Constitutional Development"; Bendix, Kings or People, 115-23: Anderson, Lineages, 328-41. The most complete rendition is found in Downing, The Military Revolution, 38-44.