The politics of commercial transition: Factional conflict in Dahomey in the context of the ending of the atlantic slave trade

Journal of African History

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 213-233

  Law, Robin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 6244301730     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021853796006846     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. A. Le Herissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey (Paris, 1911), 20.
2. De Chenevert and Abbé Bullet, 'Réfléxions sur Juda' (MS of 1776, in Archives Nationales, Section d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence: Dépôt des Fortifications des Colonies, Côtes d'Afrique, 111), 72. For the role of palace women in Dahomian royal successions more generally, see Edna G. Bay, 'Belief, legitimacy and the Kpojito: an institutional history of the "Queen Mother" in pre-colonial Dahomey', J. Afr. Hist., XXXVI (1995), 1-27.
3. De Chenevert and Abbé Bullet, 'Réfléxions sur Juda' (MS of 1776, in Archives Nationales, Section d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence: Dépôt des Fortifications des Colonies, Côtes d'Afrique, 111), 72. For the role of palace women in Dahomian royal successions more generally, see Edna G. Bay, 'Belief, legitimacy and the Kpojito: an institutional history of the "Queen Mother" in pre-colonial Dahomey', J. Afr. Hist., XXXVI (1995), 1-27.
4. A. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, Revue Maritime et Coloniale, 1 (1860), 341.
5. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 142-8 . For an assessment of the current state of the debate in general, see Robin Law (ed.), From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge, 1995 ). For a recent analysis of the case of Asante, which presents parallels with that of Dahomey, cf. Gareth Austin, ' "No elders were present' ": Commoners and private ownership in Asante, 1807-1896', J. Afr. Hist., XXXVII (1996), 1-30.
6. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 142-8 . For an assessment of the current state of the debate in general, see Robin Law (ed.), From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge, 1995 ). For a recent analysis of the case of Asante, which presents parallels with that of Dahomey, cf. Gareth Austin, ' "No elders were present' ": Commoners and private ownership in Asante, 1807-1896', J. Afr. Hist., XXXVII (1996), 1-30.
7. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 142-8 . For an assessment of the current state of the debate in general, see Robin Law (ed.), From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge, 1995 ). For a recent analysis of the case of Asante, which presents parallels with that of Dahomey, cf. Gareth Austin, ' "No elders were present' ": Commoners and private ownership in Asante, 1807-1896', J. Afr. Hist., XXXVII (1996), 1-30.
8. Robin Law, 'Human sacrifice in pre-colonial West Africa', African Affairs, LXXXIV (1985), 83-6; cf. also 'Slave-raiders and middlemen, monopolists and free-traders: the supply of slaves for the Atlantic trade in Dahomey, c. 1715-1850', J. Afr. Hist., XXX (1989), 67-8.
9. Robin Law, 'Human sacrifice in pre-colonial West Africa', African Affairs, LXXXIV (1985), 83-6; cf. also 'Slave-raiders and middlemen, monopolists and free-traders: the supply of slaves for the Atlantic trade in Dahomey, c. 1715-1850', J. Afr. Hist., XXX (1989), 67-8.
10. David Ross, 'The autonomous kingdom of Dahomey, 1818-94' (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1967); Susan Hargreaves, 'An ideological interpretation of Dahomian politics, 1818-1864' (M.A. dissertation, Centre of West African Studies, University of Birmingham, 1978); John Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats in crisis: the political effects of the transition from the slave trade to palm oil commerce in the nineteenth-century kingdom of Dahomey' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Stirling, 1986).
11. David Ross, 'The autonomous kingdom of Dahomey, 1818-94' (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1967); Susan Hargreaves, 'An ideological interpretation of Dahomian politics, 1818-1864' (M.A. dissertation, Centre of West African Studies, University of Birmingham, 1978); John Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats in crisis: the political effects of the transition from the slave trade to palm oil commerce in the nineteenth-century kingdom of Dahomey' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Stirling, 1986).
12. David Ross, 'The autonomous kingdom of Dahomey, 1818-94' (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1967); Susan Hargreaves, 'An ideological interpretation of Dahomian politics, 1818-1864' (M.A. dissertation, Centre of West African Studies, University of Birmingham, 1978); John Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats in crisis: the political effects of the transition from the slave trade to palm oil commerce in the nineteenth-century kingdom of Dahomey' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Stirling, 1986).
13. Augustus A. Adeyinka, 'King Gezo of Dahomey, 1818-1858: a reassessment of a West African monarch in the nineteenth century', African Studies Review, XVII (1974), 541-8; E. A. Soumonni, 'Dahomean economic policy under Ghézo, 1818-1858: a reconsideration', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, X (1980), 1-11. The issue is mentioned, albeit only briefly, by Adrien Djivo, Guézo, la rénovation du Dahomey (Paris, 1977), 91-2.
14. Augustus A. Adeyinka, 'King Gezo of Dahomey, 1818-1858: a reassessment of a West African monarch in the nineteenth century', African Studies Review, XVII (1974), 541-8; E. A. Soumonni, 'Dahomean economic policy under Ghézo, 1818-1858: a reconsideration', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, X (1980), 1-11. The issue is mentioned, albeit only briefly, by Adrien Djivo, Guézo, la rénovation du Dahomey (Paris, 1977), 91-2.
15. Augustus A. Adeyinka, 'King Gezo of Dahomey, 1818-1858: a reassessment of a West African monarch in the nineteenth century', African Studies Review, XVII (1974), 541-8; E. A. Soumonni, 'Dahomean economic policy under Ghézo, 1818-1858: a reconsideration', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, X (1980), 1-11. The issue is mentioned, albeit only briefly, by Adrien Djivo, Guézo, la rénovation du Dahomey (Paris, 1977), 91-2.
16. John C. Yoder, 'Fly and Elephant Parties: political polarization in Dahomey, 1840-1870', J. Afr. Hist., XV (1974), 417-32.
17. For the general background, cf. C. W. Newbury, The Western Slave Coast and its Rulers (Oxford, 1961), chs. 2-3; Patrick Manning, Slavery, Colonialism and Economic Growth in Dahomey, 1640-1960 (Cambridge, 1982), 50-6.
18. For the general background, cf. C. W. Newbury, The Western Slave Coast and its Rulers (Oxford, 1961), chs. 2-3; Patrick Manning, Slavery, Colonialism and Economic Growth in Dahomey, 1640-1960 (Cambridge, 1982), 50-6.
19. For a fuller account, see Robin Law, 'An African response to Abolition: Anglo-Dahomian negotiations on ending the slave trade, 1838-77', Slavery and Abolition, XVI (1995), 281-310.
20. See further Robin Law, 'Royal monopoly and private enterprise in the Atlantic trade: the case of Dahomey', J. Afr. Hist., XVIII (1977), 572-6.
21. For supporting argument for this view of the historical origins of Dahomian militarism, cf. Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa 1550-1750: The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on an African Society (Oxford, 1991).
22. Parliamentary Papers [hereafter PP], Papers Relative to the Reduction of Lagos, 1852 [hereafter PRRL], no. 9: Consul Beecroft, Prince's Island, 22 July 1850; enclosure 3 in no. 13: Journal of Lieutenant Forbes, 4 July 1850.
23. Mousa Oumar Sy, 'Le Dahomey: le coup d'état de 1818', Folia Orientalia, VI (1964), 205-38.
24. Public Record Office, London [hereafter PRO]: ADM.55/11, Hugh Clapperton, 'Remarks on Little Popo and Whydah', Nov. 1825. My profound thanks to J. R. Bruce Lockhart, who is currently working on a biography of Clapperton, for drawing this hitherto neglected source to my attention.
25. Frederick Forbes, Dahomey and the Dahomans (z vols.) (London, 1851), i, 83.
26. Le Herissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 33.
27. Maurice Ahanhanzo Glélé, Le Danxome (Paris, 1974), 118, 142.
28. ' Gan-seh' and 'Toh-mah-tee' are listed among those receiving the royal bounty: Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 243. Cf. also ii, 247, referring to 'Toh-mah-tee (king's brother)'.
29. Richard Burton, A Mission to Gelele, King of Dahome (2 vols.) (London, 1864), ii, 400-1.
30. Ibid, ii, 125, n.
31. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 102, 123, 162, 170 ('Leh-peh-hoong'); 28, 93, 102, 130, 147, 213 ('Ah-hoh-peh'); and cf. Burton, Mission to Gelele, ii, 126, n., who gives these names in the forms 'Enekpehun' and 'Ahopwe'. For traditional recollection of a brother of Gezo called Linkpehun, see Paul Hazoumé, Le pacte de sang au Dahomey (Paris, 1937), 28. Ahokpe was the son of King Agonglo (1789-97) by Sophie, an Afro-European woman formerly married to Ollivier de Montaguère, Director of the French fort at Whydah in 1775-86: Reynier, 'Ouidah: organisation du commandement' (1917), in Mémoire du Benin, 11 (1993), 58.
32. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 102, 123, 162, 170 ('Leh-peh-hoong'); 28, 93, 102, 130, 147, 213 ('Ah-hoh-peh'); and cf. Burton, Mission to Gelele, ii, 126, n., who gives these names in the forms 'Enekpehun' and 'Ahopwe'. For traditional recollection of a brother of Gezo called Linkpehun, see Paul Hazoumé, Le pacte de sang au Dahomey (Paris, 1937), 28. Ahokpe was the son of King Agonglo (1789-97) by Sophie, an Afro-European woman formerly married to Ollivier de Montaguère, Director of the French fort at Whydah in 1775-86: Reynier, 'Ouidah: organisation du commandement' (1917), in Mémoire du Benin, 11 (1993), 58.
33. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 102, 123, 162, 170 ('Leh-peh-hoong'); 28, 93, 102, 130, 147, 213 ('Ah-hoh-peh'); and cf. Burton, Mission to Gelele, ii, 126, n., who gives these names in the forms 'Enekpehun' and 'Ahopwe'. For traditional recollection of a brother of Gezo called Linkpehun, see Paul Hazoumé, Le pacte de sang au Dahomey (Paris, 1937), 28. Ahokpe was the son of King Agonglo (1789-97) by Sophie, an Afro-European woman formerly married to Ollivier de Montaguère, Director of the French fort at Whydah in 1775-86: Reynier, 'Ouidah: organisation du commandement' (1917), in Mémoire du Benin, 11 (1993), 58.
34. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 102, 123, 162, 170 ('Leh-peh-hoong'); 28, 93, 102, 130, 147, 213 ('Ah-hoh-peh'); and cf. Burton, Mission to Gelele, ii, 126, n., who gives these names in the forms 'Enekpehun' and 'Ahopwe'. For traditional recollection of a brother of Gezo called Linkpehun, see Paul Hazoumé, Le pacte de sang au Dahomey (Paris, 1937), 28. Ahokpe was the son of King Agonglo (1789-97) by Sophie, an Afro-European woman formerly married to Ollivier de Montaguère, Director of the French fort at Whydah in 1775-86: Reynier, 'Ouidah: organisation du commandement' (1917), in Mémoire du Benin, 11 (1993), 58.
35. David Ross, 'The first Chacha of Whydah: Francisco Felix de Souza', Odu, 3rd Ser. 11 (1969), 19-28.
36. John Duncan, Travels in Western Africa (2 vols.) (London, 1847), ii, 269.
37. Royal Gold Coast Gazette, ii Feb. 1823; PRO: ADM.55/11, Clapperton, 'Remarks on Little Popo and Whydah', Nov. 1825.
38. Royal Gold Coast Gazette, ii Feb. 1823; PRO: ADM.55/11, Clapperton, 'Remarks on Little Popo and Whydah', Nov. 1825.
39. Forbes, Dahomey, i, 7; ii, 23.
40. Forbes, Dahomey, i, 7; ii, 23.
41. Le Herissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 315; Glélé, Le Danxome, 116.
42. Le Herissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 315; Glélé, Le Danxome, 116.
43. King of Dahomey, 20 Nov. 1804, quoted in Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la Traite des Nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia to Todos os Santos, du XVe au XIXe siècles (Paris, 1968), 281, n. 38.
44. I.A. Akinjogbin, Dahomey and its Neighbours 1708-1818 (Cambridge, 1967), 193.
45. PRO: T.70/1163, Day Book, William's Fort, Whydah, 23 Oct. 1808.
46. David Ross, 'The anti-slave trade theme in Dahoman history: an examination of the evidence', History in Africa, IX (1982), 265.
47. Le Herissé, L'ancien royaume de Dahomey, 313 (Adandozan's reply to an embassy from Oyo, demanding tribute, which suggested that he should cultivate the soil to earn the wealth needed to pay it).
48. PP: Report of the Select Committee on the West Coast of Africa, 1842 [hereafter RSCWCA], Minutes of Evidence, W. M. Hutton, 10329.
49. PP: Missions to the King of Ashantee and Dahomey (1848), Report of B. Cruickshank, 18 Nov. 1848, 17.
50. Bernasko, 3 Oct. 1862, quoted in Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 404.
51. PP: Despatches from Commodore Wilmot, respecting his Visit to the King of Dahomey (1863), 10.
52. J. A. Skertchly, Dahomey As It Is (London, 1874), 304-5.
53. Ross, 'Autonomous kingdom', ch. 2.
54. Cf. the argument of Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 266-304, 381-5.
55. Yoder, 'Fly and Elephant Parties'.
56. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 109.
57. M. J. Herskovits, Dahomey, An Ancient West African Kingdom (2 vols.) (New York, 1938), i, 68.
58. Ross, 'Anti-slave trade theme', 266-7.
59. As argued by Hargreaves, 'Ideological interpretation', 35.
60. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 189.
61. Ibid, i, 112-13; cf. Law, 'Slave-raiders and middlemen', 63-4.
62. Ibid, i, 112-13; cf. Law, 'Slave-raiders and middlemen', 63-4.
63. Duncan, Travels, i, 285-6.
64. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 352.
65. Le Herissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 86, 327.
66. PP: RSCWCA, Minutes of Evidence, W. M. Hutton, 10329.
67. Cf. David Ross, 'The career of Domingo Martinez in the Bight of Benin 1833-64', J. Afr. Hist., VI (1965), 81; Verger, Flux et reflux, 565-7.
68. Cf. David Ross, 'The career of Domingo Martinez in the Bight of Benin 1833-64', J. Afr. Hist., VI (1965), 81; Verger, Flux et reflux, 565-7.
69. De Monleon, 'Le Dahomé, Fernando-Po et l'Ile du Prince, en 1844', Revue Coloniale, VI (1845), 74; PRO: CO.96/12, T. Hutton, Badagry, 7 Dec. 1846.
70. De Monleon, 'Le Dahomé, Fernando-Po et l'Ile du Prince, en 1844', Revue Coloniale, VI (1845), 74; PRO: CO.96/12, T. Hutton, Badagry, 7 Dec. 1846.
71. PP: Correspondence Relating to the Slave Trade [hereafter CRST] 1849-50, ii, no. 4: Vice-Consul Duncan, Whydah, 17 Aug. 1849.
72. Forbes, Dahomey, i, 114.
73. Ibid, ii, 85.
74. Ibid, i, 115; ii, 175.
75. Ibid, i, 115; ii, 175.
76. PP: PRRL, incl. 3 in no. 13: Journal of Lieutenant Forbes, 4 July 1850.
77. Maximilien Quénum, Les ancêtres de la famille Quénum (Langres, 1981), 63-4; the anecdote had also been given earlier, in Quénum, Au pays des Fon (3rd ed., Paris, 1983; first published 1936), 134.
78. Maximilien Quénum, Les ancêtres de la famille Quénum (Langres, 1981), 63-4; the anecdote had also been given earlier, in Quénum, Au pays des Fon (3rd ed., Paris, 1983; first published 1936), 134.
79. Reynier, Ouidah', 63.
80. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 60-1; cf. also Édouard Foà, Le Dahomey (Paris, 1895), 23.
81. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 60-1; cf. also Édouard Foà, Le Dahomey (Paris, 1895), 23.
82. Cf. Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 322-4.
83. PP: CRST 1856-7, incl. in no. 7: Major Ord, The Hague, 26 July 1856.
84. PP: CRST 1858-9, ii, no. 3: Consul Campbell, Lagos, 3 Mar. 1858.
85. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 2, Revue Maritime et Coloniale, 11 (1861), 344.
86. Ibid. Part 1, 357.
87. PP: CRST 1864, ii, no. 19: Consul Burton, Bonny River, 23 Mar. 1864.
88. Forbes, Dahomey, i, in; Abbé Laffitte, Le Dahomé (Tours, 1874), 99. Dahomian tradition confirms that the tax on the oil harvest was introduced in the 1850s (after the war with Abeokuta in 1851): Le Hérissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 87.
89. Forbes, Dahomey, i, in; Abbé Laffitte, Le Dahomé (Tours, 1874), 99. Dahomian tradition confirms that the tax on the oil harvest was introduced in the 1850s (after the war with Abeokuta in 1851): Le Hérissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 87.
90. Forbes, Dahomey, i, in; Abbé Laffitte, Le Dahomé (Tours, 1874), 99. Dahomian tradition confirms that the tax on the oil harvest was introduced in the 1850s (after the war with Abeokuta in 1851): Le Hérissé, L'ancien royaume du Dahomey, 87.
91. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 343; also Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', Le Tour du Monde, VII (1863), 100.
92. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 343; also Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', Le Tour du Monde, VII (1863), 100.
93. Burton, Mission, i, 280; cf. Law, 'Royal monopoly', 573.
94. Burton, Mission, i, 280; cf. Law, 'Royal monopoly', 573.
95. Edna G. Bay, On the trail of the Bush King: a Dahomean lesson in the use of evidence', History in Africa, VI (1979), 1-15.
96. PP: CRST 1853-4, i. no. 118: Rear-Admiral Bruce, Ascension, 25 Apr. 1853.
97. PP: CRST 1857-8, ii, no. 4: Consul Campbell, Lagos, 4 Apr. 1858; 1858-9, ii, no. 3: Consul Campbell, Lagos, 3 Nov. 1858. Gezo's reduction in the scale of sacrifices at the Customs had, however, begun even before his declaration of 1853: cf. e.g. Forbes, Dahomey, i, 33.
98. Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 92; Abbé Borghero, Whydah, 30 Sept. 1861, in 'Missions du Dahomey', Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, XXV (1862), 210-20.
99. Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 92; Abbé Borghero, Whydah, 30 Sept. 1861, in 'Missions du Dahomey', Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, XXV (1862), 210-20.
100. PP: CRST 1858-9, i, no. 142: Rear-Admiral Sir F. Grey, Sierra Leone, 11 Feb. 1858.
101. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part i, 341; Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83.
102. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part i, 341; Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83.
103. Burton, Mission, ii, 26, 255 - but Burton may here be merely echoing the published account of Vallon rather than providing independent corroboration.
104. Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83.
105. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 2, 342.
106. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 219-20; Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 92.
107. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 219-20; Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 92.
108. Burton, Mission, i, 207, n.; ii, 407.
109. Burton, Mission, i, 207, n.; ii, 407.
110. Ibid, ii, 407. The French in 1856, however, thought Badahun was then aged forty to forty-five, making him four to nine years older: Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 341.
111. Ibid, ii, 407. The French in 1856, however, thought Badahun was then aged forty to forty-five, making him four to nine years older: Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 341.
112. Ibid, ii, 407. The French in 1856, however, thought Badahun was then aged forty to forty-five, making him four to nine years older: Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 341.
113. Djivo, Guézo, 89.
114. Forbes, Dahomey, i, 68.
115. Auguste Bouet, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', L'Illustration, XX (1852), 70, n. 2.
116. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 169.
117. PP: CRST 1855-6, ii, incl. 1 in no. 15: Joseph Dawson, Whydah, 29 Aug. 1855.
118. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 341.
119. Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 352.
120. Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 352.
121. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part. 1, 341 . Burton's later references to Badahun having 'retired from the court, disliking French innovations', and staying at Jegbe 'cultivating the reactionary party', are, here again, probably derived from Vallon rather than independent corroboration: CRST, 1864, ii, no. 19: Consul Burton, Bonny River, 23 Mar. 1864; Burton, Mission, ii, 255.
122. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part. 1, 341 . Burton's later references to Badahun having 'retired from the court, disliking French innovations', and staying at Jegbe 'cultivating the reactionary party', are, here again, probably derived from Vallon rather than independent corroboration: CRST, 1864, ii, no. 19: Consul Burton, Bonny River, 23 Mar. 1864; Burton, Mission, ii, 255.
123. Repin, 'Voyage au Dahomey', 86.
124. Ibid. 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 335.
125. Ibid. 83; Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 335.
126. Vallon, 'Le royaume de Dahomey', Part 1, 334-5, 340.
127. Protet, 20 May 1858, quoted by Ross, 'Autonomous kingdom', 146.
128. Foà, Le Dahomey, 27.
129. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 220, referring to Gezo's 'last war'.
130. Thomas Mouléro, 'Guezo ou Guedizo Massigbe', Études Dahoméennes, (NS) IV (1965), 58.
131. Forbes, Dahomey, i, 20.
132. Laffite, Le Dahomé, 92; cf. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 220.
133. Laffite, Le Dahomé, 92; cf. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 220.
134. Burton, Mission, ii, 407.
135. Some later sources claim that Gezo died of a wound suffered in the campaign against Ekpo: e.g. Hazoumé, Le pacte de sang, 109-12. This story is probably also spurious, having perhaps arisen as embroidery of the assertion that Gezo was 'killed' (magically) by the Ekpo war.
136. Burton, Mission, ii, 407.
137. Edouard Dunglas, 'Contribution à l'histoire du Moyen-Dahomey', Part 2, Études Dahoméennes, XVIII (1957), 102.
138. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 220; cf. Laffite, Le Dahomé, 92.
139. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 220; cf. Laffite, Le Dahomé, 92.
140. Lartigue, 9 Aug. 1860, quoted by Thomas C. Maroukis, 'Warfare and society in the history of Dahomey, 1818-1894' (Ph.D. thesis, Boston University, 1974), 269.
141. M. Béraud, ' Note sur le Dahomé', Bulletin de la Société' de la Géographie, XII (1866), 376.
142. Borghero, in 'Missions du Dahomey', 220-1.
143. Cf. Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 402-11.
144. pp. Despatches from Commodore Wilmot, 8. Forbes' account of the 1850 Customs mentions only a single platform ; the increase to two was related to the institution of the 'Bush King', separate ceremonies being conducted for the king and his fictive double (cf. Burton, Mission, ii, 170), and had therefore presumably occurred during the later years of Gezo.
145. Burton, Mission, ii, 22 (misremembering Forbes' total as 36); cf. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 177. The figures for 1850 and 1864 are not strictly comparable, since Forbes' total included 8 sacrifices made at the royal graves after the main ceremonies, whereas Burton's did not: the real increase was therefore from 24 in 1850 to 39 in 1864.
146. Burton, Mission, ii, 22 (misremembering Forbes' total as 36); cf. Forbes, Dahomey, ii, 177. The figures for 1850 and 1864 are not strictly comparable, since Forbes' total included 8 sacrifices made at the royal graves after the main ceremonies, whereas Burton's did not: the real increase was therefore from 24 in 1850 to 39 in 1864.
147. Burton, Mission, ii, 27; cf. also ii, 149.
148. Burton, Mission, ii, 27; cf. also ii, 149.
149. Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 496-9.
150. PP: CRST 1862, ii, no. 21: Consul Freeman, Lagos, 1 July 1862.
151. Béraud, 'Note sur le Dahomé', 375-6.
152. PP: CRST 1858-9, ii, no. 17: Consul Campbell, Lagos, 7 Feb. 1859.
153. Bernasko, Oct. 1860 and 3 Oct. 1862, quoted in Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 403-4.
154. pp. Despatches from Commodore Wilmot, 13.
155. PP: CRST 1860, ii, no. 8: Consul Brand, Lagos, 18 Apr. 1860.
156. PP: CRST 1864, ii, no. 19: Consul Burton, Bonny River, 23 Mar. 1864.
157. Burton, Mission to Gelele, ii, 85, n.
158. Ibid, i, 91.
159. PP: CRST 1860, no. 8: Consul Brand, Lagos, 18 Apr. 1860.
160. Reynier, Ouidah', 63. Burton in 1864 describes Houenou as 'now promoted' to this rank: Mission, ii, 126, n. However, he is already described as 'minister of commerce' in 1861: Laffitte, La Dahomé, 198-202. Cf. also Quénum, Les ancêtres, 62-3, which however erroneously dates the appointment to the reign of Gezo.
161. Reynier, Ouidah', 63. Burton in 1864 describes Houenou as 'now promoted' to this rank: Mission, ii, 126, n. However, he is already described as 'minister of commerce' in 1861: Laffitte, La Dahomé, 198-202. Cf. also Quénum, Les ancêtres, 62-3, which however erroneously dates the appointment to the reign of Gezo.
162. Reynier, Ouidah', 63. Burton in 1864 describes Houenou as 'now promoted' to this rank: Mission, ii, 126, n. However, he is already described as 'minister of commerce' in 1861: Laffitte, La Dahomé, 198-202. Cf. also Quénum, Les ancêtres, 62-3, which however erroneously dates the appointment to the reign of Gezo.
163. Reynier, Ouidah', 63. Burton in 1864 describes Houenou as 'now promoted' to this rank: Mission, ii, 126, n. However, he is already described as 'minister of commerce' in 1861: Laffitte, La Dahomé, 198-202. Cf. also Quénum, Les ancêtres, 62-3, which however erroneously dates the appointment to the reign of Gezo.
164. Reynier, Ouidah', 63; cf. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 70-1 (where '1886' on p. 70 is clearly a misprint for '1866').
165. Reynier, Ouidah', 63; cf. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 70-1 (where '1886' on p. 70 is clearly a misprint for '1866').
166. PP: CRST 1860, ii, no. 18: Consul Brand, Lagos, 18 Apr. 1860.
167. E.g. Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 93 ('Schoundaton'); Burton, Mission, i, 209 ('Chyudaton'). Cf. also Casimir Agbo, Histoire de Ouidah (Avignon, 1959), 204.
168. E.g. Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 93 ('Schoundaton'); Burton, Mission, i, 209 ('Chyudaton'). Cf. also Casimir Agbo, Histoire de Ouidah (Avignon, 1959), 204.
169. E.g. Laffitte, Le Dahomé, 93 ('Schoundaton'); Burton, Mission, i, 209 ('Chyudaton'). Cf. also Casimir Agbo, Histoire de Ouidah (Avignon, 1959), 204.
170. Burton, Mission, i, 101, n., 209; Gléle, Le Danxome, 143.
171. Burton, Mission, i, 101, n., 209; Gléle, Le Danxome, 143.
172. Burton, Mission, i, 221-5.
173. Ibid, i, 53.
174. Ibid, i, 101, n., 375-6. The supposedly unfriendly chiefs included the Migan and the Tokpo (the official responsible for agriculture).
175. E.g. Serval, 'Rapport sur une mission au Dahomey', Revue Maritime et Coloniale, LIX (1878), 188.
176. Patrick Manning, ' Le Danhomé face aux contradictions économiques de l'ère impérialiste, 1858-1889' (Paper presented at the International Conference on the Life and Work of King Glele, Abomey, Dec. 1989).
177. Bernard Maupoil, La géomancie à l'ancienne Côte des Esclaves (Institut d'Ethnologie, Paris, 1943), 138, n.
178. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 78-9.
179. Reid, 'Warrior aristocrats', 480-2.
180. Serval, 'Rapport', 191; Foà, Le Dahomey, 36.
181. Serval, 'Rapport', 191; Foà, Le Dahomey, 36.
182. Reynier, Ouidah', 65; cf. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 78-80.
183. Reynier, Ouidah', 65; cf. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 78-80.
184. Quénum, Les ancêtres, 85.
185. Ironically, indeed, the de Souzas in turn were to suffer disgrace, liquidation of their leader, and confiscation a few years later (1887): Foà, Le Dahomey, 42-4.
186. Agbo, Histoire de Ouidah, 74-5: Agbo himself, as a child, was one of those imprisoned on this occasion.
187. Reynier, Ouidah', 65; Quénum, Les ancêtres, 84, 87-9.
188. Reynier, Ouidah', 65; Quénum, Les ancêtres, 84, 87-9.