'The product of civilization in its most repellent manifestation': Ambiguities in the racial perceptions of the APO (African Political Organization), 1909-23

Journal of African History

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 283-300

  Adhikari, Mohamed ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 6244250216     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021853796006949     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Contrary to international usage, in South Africa the term coloured does not refer to black people in general. It instead alludes to a phenotypically diverse group of people descended largely from Cape slaves, indigenous Khoisan peoples and other blacks who had been assimilated to Cape colonial society by the late nineteenth century.
2. It was only in the 1930s, with the emergence of a radical movement in coloured protest politics, that the legitimacy of coloured identity was first challenged. The trend has since grown to the extent that today a substantial proportion of people classified as coloured under the apartheid laws reject the identity.
3. For examples of such writing see J. S. Marais, The Cape Coloured People, 1652-1937 (Johannesburg, 1939); H. P. Cruse, Die Opheffing van die Kleurlingbevolking (Stellenbosch, 1947), 9-25; F. van Jaarsveld, Jan van Riebeeck to Verwoerd, 1652-1966 (Johannesburg, 1971), 20-31; A. J. Venter, Coloured: A Profile of Two Million South Africans (Cape Town, 1974).
4. For examples of such writing see J. S. Marais, The Cape Coloured People, 1652-1937 (Johannesburg, 1939); H. P. Cruse, Die Opheffing van die Kleurlingbevolking (Stellenbosch, 1947), 9-25; F. van Jaarsveld, Jan van Riebeeck to Verwoerd, 1652-1966 (Johannesburg, 1971), 20-31; A. J. Venter, Coloured: A Profile of Two Million South Africans (Cape Town, 1974).
5. For examples of such writing see J. S. Marais, The Cape Coloured People, 1652-1937 (Johannesburg, 1939); H. P. Cruse, Die Opheffing van die Kleurlingbevolking (Stellenbosch, 1947), 9-25; F. van Jaarsveld, Jan van Riebeeck to Verwoerd, 1652-1966 (Johannesburg, 1971), 20-31; A. J. Venter, Coloured: A Profile of Two Million South Africans (Cape Town, 1974).
6. For examples of such writing see J. S. Marais, The Cape Coloured People, 1652-1937 (Johannesburg, 1939); H. P. Cruse, Die Opheffing van die Kleurlingbevolking (Stellenbosch, 1947), 9-25; F. van Jaarsveld, Jan van Riebeeck to Verwoerd, 1652-1966 (Johannesburg, 1971), 20-31; A. J. Venter, Coloured: A Profile of Two Million South Africans (Cape Town, 1974).
7. For a more detailed discussion of popular stereotyping of coloured people see M. Adhikari, 'God, Jan van Riebeeck and the coloured people: the anatomy of a South African joke', Southern African Discourse, IV, (1992), 4-10. See also S. Dubow, Illicit Union: Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge, 1995), 135-6, 180-9.
8. For a more detailed discussion of popular stereotyping of coloured people see M. Adhikari, 'God, Jan van Riebeeck and the coloured people: the anatomy of a South African joke', Southern African Discourse, IV, (1992), 4-10. See also S. Dubow, Illicit Union: Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge, 1995), 135-6, 180-9.
9. See M. Adhikari, Let us Live for our Children: The Teachers' League of South Africa, 1913-1940 (Cape Town, 1993), 11-18 and 'The sons of Ham: slavery and the making of coloured identity', South African Historical Journal, XXVII, (1992), 95-112 for a more detailed discussion of the origins of coloured identity. For case studies of Cape Town and Kimberley see V. Bickford-Smith, Ethnic Pride and Racial Prejudice in Victorian Cape Town: Group Identity and Social Practice, 1875-1902 (Cambridge, 1995) and P. Lawrence, 'Class, colour consciousness and the search for identity: blacks at the Kimberley diamond diggings, 1867-1893 (M. A. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1994).
10. See M. Adhikari, Let us Live for our Children: The Teachers' League of South Africa, 1913-1940 (Cape Town, 1993), 11-18 and 'The sons of Ham: slavery and the making of coloured identity', South African Historical Journal, XXVII, (1992), 95-112 for a more detailed discussion of the origins of coloured identity. For case studies of Cape Town and Kimberley see V. Bickford-Smith, Ethnic Pride and Racial Prejudice in Victorian Cape Town: Group Identity and Social Practice, 1875-1902 (Cambridge, 1995) and P. Lawrence, 'Class, colour consciousness and the search for identity: blacks at the Kimberley diamond diggings, 1867-1893 (M. A. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1994).
11. See M. Adhikari, Let us Live for our Children: The Teachers' League of South Africa, 1913-1940 (Cape Town, 1993), 11-18 and 'The sons of Ham: slavery and the making of coloured identity', South African Historical Journal, XXVII, (1992), 95-112 for a more detailed discussion of the origins of coloured identity. For case studies of Cape Town and Kimberley see V. Bickford-Smith, Ethnic Pride and Racial Prejudice in Victorian Cape Town: Group Identity and Social Practice, 1875-1902 (Cambridge, 1995) and P. Lawrence, 'Class, colour consciousness and the search for identity: blacks at the Kimberley diamond diggings, 1867-1893 (M. A. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1994).
12. See M. Adhikari, Let us Live for our Children: The Teachers' League of South Africa, 1913-1940 (Cape Town, 1993), 11-18 and 'The sons of Ham: slavery and the making of coloured identity', South African Historical Journal, XXVII, (1992), 95-112 for a more detailed discussion of the origins of coloured identity. For case studies of Cape Town and Kimberley see V. Bickford-Smith, Ethnic Pride and Racial Prejudice in Victorian Cape Town: Group Identity and Social Practice, 1875-1902 (Cambridge, 1995) and P. Lawrence, 'Class, colour consciousness and the search for identity: blacks at the Kimberley diamond diggings, 1867-1893 (M. A. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1994).
13. R. E. van der Ross, The Rise and Decline of Apartheid: A Study of Political Movements Among the Coloured People of South Africa (Cape Town, 1986), 2-3. The polemical book referred to is Myths and Attitudes: An Inside Look at the Coloured People (Cape Town, 1979).
14. R. E. van der Ross, The Rise and Decline of Apartheid: A Study of Political Movements Among the Coloured People of South Africa (Cape Town, 1986), 2-3. The polemical book referred to is Myths and Attitudes: An Inside Look at the Coloured People (Cape Town, 1979).
15. G. Lewis, Between the Wire and the Wall: A History of South African 'Coloured' Politics (Cape Town, 1987), 3-4.
16. I. Goldin, Making Race: The Politics and Economics of Coloured Identity in South Africa (Cape Town, 1987), xxxvi. For detailed evaluations of van der Ross, Lewis and Goldin's books see M. Adhikari, 'Responses to marginality: twentieth-century coloured politics', South African Historical Journal, XX, (1988), 115-25 and 'Between black and white: The history of coloured politics in South Africa', Can. J. Afr. Studies, XXV (1991), 106-10.
17. I. Goldin, Making Race: The Politics and Economics of Coloured Identity in South Africa (Cape Town, 1987), xxxvi. For detailed evaluations of van der Ross, Lewis and Goldin's books see M. Adhikari, 'Responses to marginality: twentieth-century coloured politics', South African Historical Journal, XX, (1988), 115-25 and 'Between black and white: The history of coloured politics in South Africa', Can. J. Afr. Studies, XXV (1991), 106-10.
18. I. Goldin, Making Race: The Politics and Economics of Coloured Identity in South Africa (Cape Town, 1987), xxxvi. For detailed evaluations of van der Ross, Lewis and Goldin's books see M. Adhikari, 'Responses to marginality: twentieth-century coloured politics', South African Historical Journal, XX, (1988), 115-25 and 'Between black and white: The history of coloured politics in South Africa', Can. J. Afr. Studies, XXV (1991), 106-10.
19. R. H. du Pre, Separate but Unequal: The Coloured People of South Africa - A Political History (Johannesburg, 1994), 4-5, 11ff. For a detailed evaluation of du Pre's book see M. Adhikari, 'Blinded by anger: Coloured experience under apartheid', South African Historical Journal, XXXV, November 1996.
20. R. H. du Pre, Separate but Unequal: The Coloured People of South Africa - A Political History (Johannesburg, 1994), 4-5, 11ff. For a detailed evaluation of du Pre's book see M. Adhikari, 'Blinded by anger: Coloured experience under apartheid', South African Historical Journal, XXXV, November 1996.
21. L. M. Thompson, The Unification of South Africa, 1902-1910 (London, 1961), 305-6, 340-1.
22. The APO defined its objectives in its constitution as; (a) The promotion of unity between the Coloured races of British South Africa (b) The attainment of better and higher education for the children of these races (c) The registration of the names of all the coloured men who have the necessary qualifications as Parliamentary voters on the Voters' List (d) The defence of the social, political and civil rights of the coloured races (e) The general advancement of the coloured races in British South Africa. See APO, 25 Feb. 1911.
23. The APO defined its objectives in its constitution as; (a) The promotion of unity between the Coloured races of British South Africa (b) The attainment of better and higher education for the children of these races (c) The registration of the names of all the coloured men who have the necessary qualifications as Parliamentary voters on the Voters' List (d) The defence of the social, political and civil rights of the coloured races (e) The general advancement of the coloured races in British South Africa. See APO, 25 Feb. 1911.
24. The APO defined its objectives in its constitution as; (a) The promotion of unity between the Coloured races of British South Africa (b) The attainment of better and higher education for the children of these races (c) The registration of the names of all the coloured men who have the necessary qualifications as Parliamentary voters on the Voters' List (d) The defence of the social, political and civil rights of the coloured races (e) The general advancement of the coloured races in British South Africa. See APO, 25 Feb. 1911.
25. The APO defined its objectives in its constitution as; (a) The promotion of unity between the Coloured races of British South Africa (b) The attainment of better and higher education for the children of these races (c) The registration of the names of all the coloured men who have the necessary qualifications as Parliamentary voters on the Voters' List (d) The defence of the social, political and civil rights of the coloured races (e) The general advancement of the coloured races in British South Africa. See APO, 25 Feb. 1911.
26. The APO defined its objectives in its constitution as; (a) The promotion of unity between the Coloured races of British South Africa (b) The attainment of better and higher education for the children of these races (c) The registration of the names of all the coloured men who have the necessary qualifications as Parliamentary voters on the Voters' List (d) The defence of the social, political and civil rights of the coloured races (e) The general advancement of the coloured races in British South Africa. See APO, 25 Feb. 1911.
27. Although a pioneer in many respects, the APO had a predecessor in Francis Peregrino's South African Spectator which appeared sporadically between 1901 and 1908. Being a Pan-Africanist, Peregrino directed his newspaper at both a coloured and an African readership. See C. Saunders, 'F. Z. S. Peregrino and the South African Spectator', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXII (1978), 81-90; B. Willan, 'Correspondence ' Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXIII (1978), 34-6. The only other newspaper intended for a coloured readership to have appeared before the 1930s was the SA Clarion (1919-21) , which Lewis ('Coloured' Politics, 123) correctly characterizes as being little more than a propaganda paper of the Cape Nationalist Party.
28. Although a pioneer in many respects, the APO had a predecessor in Francis Peregrino's South African Spectator which appeared sporadically between 1901 and 1908. Being a Pan-Africanist, Peregrino directed his newspaper at both a coloured and an African readership. See C. Saunders, 'F. Z. S. Peregrino and the South African Spectator', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXII (1978), 81-90; B. Willan, 'Correspondence ' Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXIII (1978), 34-6. The only other newspaper intended for a coloured readership to have appeared before the 1930s was the SA Clarion (1919-21) , which Lewis ('Coloured' Politics, 123) correctly characterizes as being little more than a propaganda paper of the Cape Nationalist Party.
29. Although a pioneer in many respects, the APO had a predecessor in Francis Peregrino's South African Spectator which appeared sporadically between 1901 and 1908. Being a Pan-Africanist, Peregrino directed his newspaper at both a coloured and an African readership. See C. Saunders, 'F. Z. S. Peregrino and the South African Spectator', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXII (1978), 81-90; B. Willan, 'Correspondence ' Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXIII (1978), 34-6. The only other newspaper intended for a coloured readership to have appeared before the 1930s was the SA Clarion (1919-21) , which Lewis ('Coloured' Politics, 123) correctly characterizes as being little more than a propaganda paper of the Cape Nationalist Party.
30. Although a pioneer in many respects, the APO had a predecessor in Francis Peregrino's South African Spectator which appeared sporadically between 1901 and 1908. Being a Pan-Africanist, Peregrino directed his newspaper at both a coloured and an African readership. See C. Saunders, 'F. Z. S. Peregrino and the South African Spectator', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXII (1978), 81-90; B. Willan, 'Correspondence ' Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXIII (1978), 34-6. The only other newspaper intended for a coloured readership to have appeared before the 1930s was the SA Clarion (1919-21) , which Lewis ('Coloured' Politics, 123) correctly characterizes as being little more than a propaganda paper of the Cape Nationalist Party.
31. Although a pioneer in many respects, the APO had a predecessor in Francis Peregrino's South African Spectator which appeared sporadically between 1901 and 1908. Being a Pan-Africanist, Peregrino directed his newspaper at both a coloured and an African readership. See C. Saunders, 'F. Z. S. Peregrino and the South African Spectator', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXII (1978), 81-90; B. Willan, 'Correspondence ' Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXIII (1978), 34-6. The only other newspaper intended for a coloured readership to have appeared before the 1930s was the SA Clarion (1919-21) , which Lewis ('Coloured' Politics, 123) correctly characterizes as being little more than a propaganda paper of the Cape Nationalist Party.
32. Although a pioneer in many respects, the APO had a predecessor in Francis Peregrino's South African Spectator which appeared sporadically between 1901 and 1908. Being a Pan-Africanist, Peregrino directed his newspaper at both a coloured and an African readership. See C. Saunders, 'F. Z. S. Peregrino and the South African Spectator', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXII (1978), 81-90; B. Willan, 'Correspondence ' Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, XXXIII (1978), 34-6. The only other newspaper intended for a coloured readership to have appeared before the 1930s was the SA Clarion (1919-21) , which Lewis ('Coloured' Politics, 123) correctly characterizes as being little more than a propaganda paper of the Cape Nationalist Party.
33. See also APO, 4 June 1910.
34. Matthew J. Fredericks, born in Cape Town in 1874 and an insurance agent by profession, was a key figure in the APO, second in importance only to Abdurahman. He served as general secretary of the APO from 1903 until his death in 1936. Applying his considerable organizational skill to the day-to-day running of the organization, Fredericks neatly complimented the high public profile of the charismatic Abdurahman. In 1925 he was awarded the King's Medal for 'civil services of outstanding merit' for his involvement in a wide range of coloured communal organizations. G. Lewis, 'The reactions of the Cape Coloureds to segregation, 1900-1948' (Ph.D. thesis, Queens University, 1984), 613.
35. APO, 4 June 1910; SA Clarion, 26 Apr. 1919; Sun, 1 Mar. 1940; W. J. de Kock, Dictionary of South African Biography (Cape Town, 1968), i, 1-4.
36. APO, 4 June 1910; SA Clarion, 26 Apr. 1919; Sun, 1 Mar. 1940; W. J. de Kock, Dictionary of South African Biography (Cape Town, 1968), i, 1-4.
37. APO, 4 June 1910; SA Clarion, 26 Apr. 1919; Sun, 1 Mar. 1940; W. J. de Kock, Dictionary of South African Biography (Cape Town, 1968), i, 1-4.
38. APO, 4 June 1910; SA Clarion, 26 Apr. 1919; Sun, 1 Mar. 1940; W. J. de Kock, Dictionary of South African Biography (Cape Town, 1968), i, 1-4.
39. Census of the Union of South Africa, 1911 (U. G.32-1912), Annexures to the general report, 10-11, 24.
40. APO, 14 Jan. 1911; South African News, 9 Aug. 1905; S. Trapido, 'The origin and development of the African Political Organization', Institute of Commonwealth Studies Collected Seminar Papers on Southern Africa, 1969-70, 97, 103.
41. APO, 14 Jan. 1911; South African News, 9 Aug. 1905; S. Trapido, 'The origin and development of the African Political Organization', Institute of Commonwealth Studies Collected Seminar Papers on Southern Africa, 1969-70, 97, 103.
42. APO, 14 Jan. 1911; South African News, 9 Aug. 1905; S. Trapido, 'The origin and development of the African Political Organization', Institute of Commonwealth Studies Collected Seminar Papers on Southern Africa, 1969-70, 97, 103.
43. For details of these organizations see Lewis, Coloured politics, 34-9, 49-53, 81-2.
44. These were open-air political meetings held on Sunday mornings in the vicinity of a large boulder on the lower slopes of Table Mountain above District Six. Because of the absence of coloured political organizations Tobin, a local cafe owner, convened these meetings from May 1901 onwards to foster the political education of the coloured community and to establish a forum for the debate of political issues. The APO grew out of these meetings that drew considerable interest from both the coloured community as well as white politicians courting their support. After he broke with the APO in 1905, Tobin continued to call Stone Meetings to publicize his pro-Afrikaner political stance.
45. Van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 75; Lewis, Coloured politics, 128; Cape Standard, 27 Feb. 1940; G. Pretorius, Man van die Daad: ' n Biografie van Bruckner de Villiers (Cape Town, 1959), 116.
46. Van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 75; Lewis, Coloured politics, 128; Cape Standard, 27 Feb. 1940; G. Pretorius, Man van die Daad: ' n Biografie van Bruckner de Villiers (Cape Town, 1959), 116.
47. Van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 75; Lewis, Coloured politics, 128; Cape Standard, 27 Feb. 1940; G. Pretorius, Man van die Daad: ' n Biografie van Bruckner de Villiers (Cape Town, 1959), 116.
48. Van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 75; Lewis, Coloured politics, 128; Cape Standard, 27 Feb. 1940; G. Pretorius, Man van die Daad: ' n Biografie van Bruckner de Villiers (Cape Town, 1959), 116.
49. For details of the NLL see van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 104ff.; Lewis, 'Coloured' Politics, 184-98, 204-6.
50. For details of the NLL see van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 104ff.; Lewis, 'Coloured' Politics, 184-98, 204-6.
51. For lack of better alternatives and to add some variety to the text, the terms ' élite' and 'petty bourgeoisie' are used interchangeably to refer to this social group. Though neither an élite nor a petty bourgeoisie in the usual senses of the terms, this group was distinguished from the coloured proletariat by their literacy, relative affluence and adherence to the norms and values of white middle-class respectability. A considerable proportion of the coloured elite consisted of 'respectable' as opposed to 'rough' working class elements. This social group is perhaps best described as an emergent petty bourgeoisie. For a discussion of the concept of petty bourgeoisie as it applies to South Africa see A. G. Cobley, Class and Consciousness: The Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1924-1950 (Westport, 1990), 2-12.
52. APO, 18 Dec. 1909; R. E. van der Ross, 'A political and social history of the Cape coloured people, 1880-1970' (Unpublished typescript, University of Cape Town Manuscripts and Archives Division, 1973), 484.
53. APO, 18 Dec. 1909; R. E. van der Ross, 'A political and social history of the Cape coloured people, 1880-1970' (Unpublished typescript, University of Cape Town Manuscripts and Archives Division, 1973), 484.
54. M. Adhikari, Teachers League, 6-7, 148ff.
55. Adonis and Abdol were stereotypical figures representing coloureds and Malays respectively. APO, 17 July 1909.
56. M. Adhikari, Straatpraatjes: Language, Politics and Popular Culture in Cape Town, 1909-1922 (Pretoria, 1996), 5-6.
57. G. Manuel, Kampvegters (Cape Town, n.d.), 8; R. van der Ross, Say it out Loud: The APO Presidential Addresses and Other Major Political speeches, 1906-1940, of Dr. Abdullah Abdurahman (Bellville, 1990), 3-13.
58. G. Manuel, Kampvegters (Cape Town, n.d.), 8; R. van der Ross, Say it out Loud: The APO Presidential Addresses and Other Major Political speeches, 1906-1940, of Dr. Abdullah Abdurahman (Bellville, 1990), 3-13.
59. A. Davids, 'Straatpraatjes: an extension of slave Afrikaans?' (Unpublished manuscript, Centre for African Studies Library, University of Cape Town), 2; APO, 9 Oct. 1909.
60. A. Davids, 'Straatpraatjes: an extension of slave Afrikaans?' (Unpublished manuscript, Centre for African Studies Library, University of Cape Town), 2; APO, 9 Oct. 1909.
61. APO, 8 Apr. 1911.
62. APO, 13 Aug. 1910; 10 Aug. 1912; E. L. Maurice, 'The development of policy in regard to the education of coloured pupils at the Cape, 1880-1940' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1966), 332-4.
63. APO, 13 Aug. 1910; 10 Aug. 1912; E. L. Maurice, 'The development of policy in regard to the education of coloured pupils at the Cape, 1880-1940' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1966), 332-4.
64. APO, 13 Aug. 1910.
65. See APO, 24 May 1909; 11 Sept. 1909; 9 Apr. 1910 for some examples.
66. APO, 7 May 1910; 4 June 1910.
67. Cape Times, 9 Jan. 1901; Cape Mercury, 8 Jan. 1901; South African Spectator, 20 Apr. 1902; Marais, Cape Coloured People, 275-6.
68. Cape Times, 9 Jan. 1901; Cape Mercury, 8 Jan. 1901; South African Spectator, 20 Apr. 1902; Marais, Cape Coloured People, 275-6.
69. Cape Times, 9 Jan. 1901; Cape Mercury, 8 Jan. 1901; South African Spectator, 20 Apr. 1902; Marais, Cape Coloured People, 275-6.
70. Cape Times, 9 Jan. 1901; Cape Mercury, 8 Jan. 1901; South African Spectator, 20 Apr. 1902; Marais, Cape Coloured People, 275-6.
71. W. Nasson, Abraham Esau's War: A Black South African War in the Cape, 1899-1902 (Cape Town, 1991), 39; Marais, Cape Coloured People 275-7; S. Trapido, '"The friends of the natives": Merchants, peasants and the political and ideological structure of liberalism at the Cape', in S. Marks and A. Atmore (eds.), Economy and Society in Pre-industrial South Africa (London, 1980), 256.
72. W. Nasson, Abraham Esau's War: A Black South African War in the Cape, 1899-1902 (Cape Town, 1991), 39; Marais, Cape Coloured People 275-7; S. Trapido, '"The friends of the natives": Merchants, peasants and the political and ideological structure of liberalism at the Cape', in S. Marks and A. Atmore (eds.), Economy and Society in Pre-industrial South Africa (London, 1980), 256.
73. W. Nasson, Abraham Esau's War: A Black South African War in the Cape, 1899-1902 (Cape Town, 1991), 39; Marais, Cape Coloured People 275-7; S. Trapido, '"The friends of the natives": Merchants, peasants and the political and ideological structure of liberalism at the Cape', in S. Marks and A. Atmore (eds.), Economy and Society in Pre-industrial South Africa (London, 1980), 256.
74. Maurice, 'Development of policy', 13-14; The Owl, 17 Mar. 1905; South African News, 17 Aug. 1904; 25 Feb. 1905; 6 Mar. 1905; Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1904; 'Speech on the Education Bill by Dr. Abdurahman', Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 21-2.
75. Maurice, 'Development of policy', 13-14; The Owl, 17 Mar. 1905; South African News, 17 Aug. 1904; 25 Feb. 1905; 6 Mar. 1905; Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1904; 'Speech on the Education Bill by Dr. Abdurahman', Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 21-2.
76. Maurice, 'Development of policy', 13-14; The Owl, 17 Mar. 1905; South African News, 17 Aug. 1904; 25 Feb. 1905; 6 Mar. 1905; Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1904; 'Speech on the Education Bill by Dr. Abdurahman', Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 21-2.
77. Maurice, 'Development of policy', 13-14; The Owl, 17 Mar. 1905; South African News, 17 Aug. 1904; 25 Feb. 1905; 6 Mar. 1905; Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1904; 'Speech on the Education Bill by Dr. Abdurahman', Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 21-2.
78. Maurice, 'Development of policy', 13-14; The Owl, 17 Mar. 1905; South African News, 17 Aug. 1904; 25 Feb. 1905; 6 Mar. 1905; Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1904; 'Speech on the Education Bill by Dr. Abdurahman', Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 21-2.
79. Maurice, 'Development of policy', 13-14; The Owl, 17 Mar. 1905; South African News, 17 Aug. 1904; 25 Feb. 1905; 6 Mar. 1905; Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1904; 'Speech on the Education Bill by Dr. Abdurahman', Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 21-2.
80. Cape Times, 1 Oct. 1906; South African News, 13 June 1906; APO, 19 June 1909; Thompson, Unification, 23-7; G. H. Le May, British Supremacy in South Africa, 1899-1907 (London, 1965), 205.
81. Cape Times, 1 Oct. 1906; South African News, 13 June 1906; APO, 19 June 1909; Thompson, Unification, 23-7; G. H. Le May, British Supremacy in South Africa, 1899-1907 (London, 1965), 205.
82. Cape Times, 1 Oct. 1906; South African News, 13 June 1906; APO, 19 June 1909; Thompson, Unification, 23-7; G. H. Le May, British Supremacy in South Africa, 1899-1907 (London, 1965), 205.
83. Cape Times, 1 Oct. 1906; South African News, 13 June 1906; APO, 19 June 1909; Thompson, Unification, 23-7; G. H. Le May, British Supremacy in South Africa, 1899-1907 (London, 1965), 205.
84. Cape Times, 1 Oct. 1906; South African News, 13 June 1906; APO, 19 June 1909; Thompson, Unification, 23-7; G. H. Le May, British Supremacy in South Africa, 1899-1907 (London, 1965), 205.
85. Lewis, 'Coloured' Politics, 70-4.
86. Adhikari, Teachers' League, 14.
87. Ibid. 145, 152-3.
88. See, for example, A. Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston, 1967), 90ff.; L. Spitzer, Lives in Between: Assimilation and Marginality in Austria, Brazil and West Africa, 1780-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), 127ff.; C. Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971), 138ff.
89. See, for example, A. Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston, 1967), 90ff.; L. Spitzer, Lives in Between: Assimilation and Marginality in Austria, Brazil and West Africa, 1780-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), 127ff.; C. Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971), 138ff.
90. See, for example, A. Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston, 1967), 90ff.; L. Spitzer, Lives in Between: Assimilation and Marginality in Austria, Brazil and West Africa, 1780-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), 127ff.; C. Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971), 138ff.
91. Adhikari, Teachers' League, 162-3.
92. APO, 4 Nov. 1911; Trapido, 'Origin and Development' 100-1.
93. APO, 4 Nov. 1911; Trapido, 'Origin and Development' 100-1.
94. The term 'African' in this instance was meant to denote the geographical location of the organization and in a vague way to imply international solidarity with black people. At this time Africans were generally referred to as 'Natives', or more disparagingly as 'Kaffirs', a term often used by the APO.
95. APO, 9 Apr. 1910.
96. Ibid. 24 May 1909.
97. See APO, 24 Dec. 1910; 6 Dec. 1913; 30 Oct. 1920 for a few examples.
98. Ibid. 24 Feb. 1912.
99. Ibid. 23 Mar. 1912.
100. The Non-European Conferences consisted of a series of four conferences held between 1927 and 1934 convened by Dr Abdurahman with a view to fostering cooperation between coloured, Indian and African political organizations. The movement had very limited success. Cape Times, 18 Apr. 1927; Sun, 10 May 1940; Lewis, 'Coloured' Politics, 79, 121, 141-2.
101. The Non-European Conferences consisted of a series of four conferences held between 1927 and 1934 convened by Dr Abdurahman with a view to fostering cooperation between coloured, Indian and African political organizations. The movement had very limited success. Cape Times, 18 Apr. 1927; Sun, 10 May 1940; Lewis, 'Coloured' Politics, 79, 121, 141-2.
102. The Non-European Conferences consisted of a series of four conferences held between 1927 and 1934 convened by Dr Abdurahman with a view to fostering cooperation between coloured, Indian and African political organizations. The movement had very limited success. Cape Times, 18 Apr. 1927; Sun, 10 May 1940; Lewis, 'Coloured' Politics, 79, 121, 141-2.
103. Washington argued that Negroes should temporarily accept their inferior status instead of protesting against the injustices they suffered. They should rather endeavour to elevate themselves through hard work, educational improvement and strict observance of the Christian moral code. He reasoned that by achieving economic self-sufficiency and by demonstrating that they were responsible citizens blacks would win the respect of whites who, through self-interest and their innate sense of justice, would accord Negroes full civil rights. See L. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader (New York, 1972), 204f.; A. Taylor, Travail and Triumph: Black Life and Culture in the South since the Civil War (Westport, 1976), 54-5; A. Meier, Negro Thought in America (Ann Arbor, 1966), 100ff.
104. Washington argued that Negroes should temporarily accept their inferior status instead of protesting against the injustices they suffered. They should rather endeavour to elevate themselves through hard work, educational improvement and strict observance of the Christian moral code. He reasoned that by achieving economic self-sufficiency and by demonstrating that they were responsible citizens blacks would win the respect of whites who, through self-interest and their innate sense of justice, would accord Negroes full civil rights. See L. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader (New York, 1972), 204f.; A. Taylor, Travail and Triumph: Black Life and Culture in the South since the Civil War (Westport, 1976), 54-5; A. Meier, Negro Thought in America (Ann Arbor, 1966), 100ff.
105. Washington argued that Negroes should temporarily accept their inferior status instead of protesting against the injustices they suffered. They should rather endeavour to elevate themselves through hard work, educational improvement and strict observance of the Christian moral code. He reasoned that by achieving economic self-sufficiency and by demonstrating that they were responsible citizens blacks would win the respect of whites who, through self-interest and their innate sense of justice, would accord Negroes full civil rights. See L. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader (New York, 1972), 204f.; A. Taylor, Travail and Triumph: Black Life and Culture in the South since the Civil War (Westport, 1976), 54-5; A. Meier, Negro Thought in America (Ann Arbor, 1966), 100ff.
106. See, for example, APO, 31 July 1909; 12 Feb. 1910; 5 Nov. 1910; 19 Oct. 1912; 8 Aug. 1914.
107. Ibid. 8 Apr. 1911; 6 Dec. 1913.
108. Ibid. 14, May 1912; Educational Journal, Dec. 1917; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 39-40.
109. Ibid. 14, May 1912; Educational Journal, Dec. 1917; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 39-40.
110. Ibid. 14, May 1912; Educational Journal, Dec. 1917; Adhikari, Teachers' League, 39-40.
111. APO, 31 July 1909.
112. Ibid. 3 Dec. 1910.
113. The dominant theme of Du Bois' philosophy was the need for black people to take pride in their racial and cultural distinctiveness and not to adopt the negative image that whites held of blacks. See M. Marable, W. E. B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986), 75ff.; M. Weinberg, W. E. B. du Bois: A Reader (New York, 1970), xi-xvii; Meier, Negro Thought, 190ff.
114. The dominant theme of Du Bois' philosophy was the need for black people to take pride in their racial and cultural distinctiveness and not to adopt the negative image that whites held of blacks. See M. Marable, W. E. B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986), 75ff.; M. Weinberg, W. E. B. du Bois: A Reader (New York, 1970), xi-xvii; Meier, Negro Thought, 190ff.
115. The dominant theme of Du Bois' philosophy was the need for black people to take pride in their racial and cultural distinctiveness and not to adopt the negative image that whites held of blacks. See M. Marable, W. E. B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986), 75ff.; M. Weinberg, W. E. B. du Bois: A Reader (New York, 1970), xi-xvii; Meier, Negro Thought, 190ff.
116. See APO, 8 Oct. 1910; 26 Aug. 1911; 1 June 1912; 8 Aug. 1914 for some examples.
117. Ibid. 25 Mar. 1911.
118. Evidence of Bishop D. H. Simms before the Cape Coloured Commission, 24 Nov. 1934, Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; C. Lowers, AME Church 75th Anniversary (Cape Town, 1971); South African Spectator, 13 May 1902; Sun, 18 May 1934; 19 June 1942.
119. Evidence of Bishop D. H. Simms before the Cape Coloured Commission, 24 Nov. 1934, Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; C. Lowers, AME Church 75th Anniversary (Cape Town, 1971); South African Spectator, 13 May 1902; Sun, 18 May 1934; 19 June 1942.
120. Evidence of Bishop D. H. Simms before the Cape Coloured Commission, 24 Nov. 1934, Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; C. Lowers, AME Church 75th Anniversary (Cape Town, 1971); South African Spectator, 13 May 1902; Sun, 18 May 1934; 19 June 1942.
121. Evidence of Bishop D. H. Simms before the Cape Coloured Commission, 24 Nov. 1934, Abdurahman Family Papers, University of Chicago; C. Lowers, AME Church 75th Anniversary (Cape Town, 1971); South African Spectator, 13 May 1902; Sun, 18 May 1934; 19 June 1942.
122. See APO, 26 Mar. 1910; 17 June 1911; 13 Jan. 1912; 7 Nov. 1919; 2 Oct. 1920 for a few examples.
123. Ibid. 12 Feb. 1910; Educational Journal, June 1918.
124. Ibid. 12 Feb. 1910; Educational Journal, June 1918.
125. See APO, 7 May 1910; 6 May 1911; 13 Jan. 1912; 12 June 1920 for some examples.
126. Educational Journal, Mar. 1922.
127. APO, 3 Oct. 1914; 31 Oct. 1914; J. D. Shingler, 'Education and the political order in South Africa' (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 1976), 11-12; van der Ross, Myths and Attitudes, 76.
128. APO, 3 Oct. 1914; 31 Oct. 1914; J. D. Shingler, 'Education and the political order in South Africa' (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 1976), 11-12; van der Ross, Myths and Attitudes, 76.
129. APO, 3 Oct. 1914; 31 Oct. 1914; J. D. Shingler, 'Education and the political order in South Africa' (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 1976), 11-12; van der Ross, Myths and Attitudes, 76.
130. APO, 17 Oct. 1914; 31 Oct. 1914.
131. Ibid. 5 Sept. 1914; 19 Sept. 1914.
132. A. Desmore, With the Second Cape Corps through Central Africa (Cape Town, 1920), 5.
133. Adhikari, Teachers' League, 15.
134. Educational Journal, May 1915.
135. Ibid. Dec. 1917.
136. M. Simons, 'Organized coloured political movements', in H. W. van der Merwe and C. J. Groenewald (eds.), Occupational and Social Change among Coloured People in South Africa (Cape Town, 1976), 212 claims that the newspaper was reconstituted with financial aid from the Unionist Party but offers no evidence to substantiate this claim.
137. APO, 1 Aug. 1919.
138. Adhikari, Teachers' League, 7, 39.
139. Union of South Africa Year Book, 1946 (G. P. 53895-1947), 46-7; L. M. Thompson, The Cape Coloured Franchise (Johannesburg, 1949), 55; van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 72-8. The black vote had grown from 15 per cent of the Cape electorate at the time of Union to 21 per cent by 1921, while the coloured share of the electorate had grown from 9.5 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period. See also Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1915; APO, 1 Aug. 1919; Shifrin, 'New deal for coloured people: a study of National Party policies toward the coloured people' (B.A. Honours thesis, University of Cape Town, 1962), 10.
140. Union of South Africa Year Book, 1946 (G. P. 53895-1947), 46-7; L. M. Thompson, The Cape Coloured Franchise (Johannesburg, 1949), 55; van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 72-8. The black vote had grown from 15 per cent of the Cape electorate at the time of Union to 21 per cent by 1921, while the coloured share of the electorate had grown from 9.5 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period. See also Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1915; APO, 1 Aug. 1919; Shifrin, 'New deal for coloured people: a study of National Party policies toward the coloured people' (B.A. Honours thesis, University of Cape Town, 1962), 10.
141. Union of South Africa Year Book, 1946 (G. P. 53895-1947), 46-7; L. M. Thompson, The Cape Coloured Franchise (Johannesburg, 1949), 55; van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 72-8. The black vote had grown from 15 per cent of the Cape electorate at the time of Union to 21 per cent by 1921, while the coloured share of the electorate had grown from 9.5 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period. See also Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1915; APO, 1 Aug. 1919; Shifrin, 'New deal for coloured people: a study of National Party policies toward the coloured people' (B.A. Honours thesis, University of Cape Town, 1962), 10.
142. Union of South Africa Year Book, 1946 (G. P. 53895-1947), 46-7; L. M. Thompson, The Cape Coloured Franchise (Johannesburg, 1949), 55; van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 72-8. The black vote had grown from 15 per cent of the Cape electorate at the time of Union to 21 per cent by 1921, while the coloured share of the electorate had grown from 9.5 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period. See also Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1915; APO, 1 Aug. 1919; Shifrin, 'New deal for coloured people: a study of National Party policies toward the coloured people' (B.A. Honours thesis, University of Cape Town, 1962), 10.
143. Union of South Africa Year Book, 1946 (G. P. 53895-1947), 46-7; L. M. Thompson, The Cape Coloured Franchise (Johannesburg, 1949), 55; van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 72-8. The black vote had grown from 15 per cent of the Cape electorate at the time of Union to 21 per cent by 1921, while the coloured share of the electorate had grown from 9.5 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period. See also Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1915; APO, 1 Aug. 1919; Shifrin, 'New deal for coloured people: a study of National Party policies toward the coloured people' (B.A. Honours thesis, University of Cape Town, 1962), 10.
144. Union of South Africa Year Book, 1946 (G. P. 53895-1947), 46-7; L. M. Thompson, The Cape Coloured Franchise (Johannesburg, 1949), 55; van der Ross, Rise and Decline, 72-8. The black vote had grown from 15 per cent of the Cape electorate at the time of Union to 21 per cent by 1921, while the coloured share of the electorate had grown from 9.5 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period. See also Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1915; APO, 1 Aug. 1919; Shifrin, 'New deal for coloured people: a study of National Party policies toward the coloured people' (B.A. Honours thesis, University of Cape Town, 1962), 10.
145. APO, 28 Jan. 1922; 25 Mar. 1922; Educational Journal, Apr. 1922.
146. APO, 28 Jan. 1922; 25 Mar. 1922; Educational Journal, Apr. 1922.
147. APO, 21 Apr. 1923; 22 Dec. 1923.
148. The Sun published from Aug. 1932 and the Cape Standard from May 1936 onwards were the first commercial newspapers aimed at a coloured readership.
149. The Sun published from Aug. 1932 and the Cape Standard from May 1936 onwards were the first commercial newspapers aimed at a coloured readership.