The 'reform' of the NKVD, 1934

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 49, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 1037-1056

  Benvenuti, Francesco ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

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EID: 6244231865     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139708412487     Document Type: Article

References (174)

1. Some of the archival documents quoted in this article are held by the Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (GARF): fond 3316, opis 2 (TsIK SSSR); fond 1235, opis 141 (VTsIK SSSR); fond 9492, opis 1 (NK Yust);fond 8131, opis 37 (Prokuratura SSSR);fond 5446, opis 27 (Sekretariat SNK), 15a, 18a (Upravlenie delami SNK). The other documents quoted here are held by the Rossiiskii Tsentr khraneniya i izucheniya dokumentov noveishei istorii (RTsKhIDNI); fond 17, opis 2 (TsK VKP/b/), opis 3 (Politbyuro), opis 162 (Osobye papki Politbyuro), opis 165 (Konferentsii pri TsK); fond 81, opis 3 (L. M. Kaganovich); fond 667, opis 1 (A. S. Enukidze). The author would like to thank the staff of these two institutions for having being greatly helpful to him. In particular, I would like to express my gratitude to Vladimir A. Kozlov, Deputy Director of GARF, and to Larissa A. Rogovaya, department Head of RTsKhIDNI. The reader will realise that, given the complex nature of the subject, the line of development of the following article is mainly an outline for further research, and often a patchy one. Moreover, in the Russian archival institutions, new documentary collections are being made available to scholars at a rather fast pace. This bestows a remarkable degree of excitement on the historian's work but it also threatens him with the risk of not achieving any firm point in his own research in a predictable time. Anyway, the present author decided to publish the results of his work on the subject as soon as he reached a reasonable persuasion that the necessary minimum of evidence, at least, had been gathered.
2. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo, 1932, 2, pp. 9-10.
3. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1254, 11. 34-36.
4. Ibid., d. 1228, 1. 1.
5. Ibid., 1. 2.
6. Pravda, 27 June 1932. For comments on this document, see F. Benvenuti, 'La legalità rivoluzionaria in URSS dal 1932 al 1934', in S. Bertolissi et al., Studi di storia sovietica (Rome, 1978), p. 236; F. Bettanin, La collettivizzazione delle campagne nell'URSS (Rome, 1978), pp. 204-207. In a letter to Molotov, written before 25 June, Stalin approved of both decisions, while referring to 'small changes' introduced by himself in one or both texts; see Pis'ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, 1925-1935 gg., Sost. L. Koshelev et al. (Moscow, 1995), p. 243.
7. Pravda, 27 June 1932. For comments on this document, see F. Benvenuti, 'La legalità rivoluzionaria in URSS dal 1932 al 1934', in S. Bertolissi et al., Studi di storia sovietica (Rome, 1978), p. 236; F. Bettanin, La collettivizzazione delle campagne nell'URSS (Rome, 1978), pp. 204-207. In a letter to Molotov, written before 25 June, Stalin approved of both decisions, while referring to 'small changes' introduced by himself in one or both texts; see Pis'ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, 1925-1935 gg., Sost. L. Koshelev et al. (Moscow, 1995), p. 243.
8. Pravda, 27 June 1932. For comments on this document, see F. Benvenuti, 'La legalità rivoluzionaria in URSS dal 1932 al 1934', in S. Bertolissi et al., Studi di storia sovietica (Rome, 1978), p. 236; F. Bettanin, La collettivizzazione delle campagne nell'URSS (Rome, 1978), pp. 204-207. In a letter to Molotov, written before 25 June, Stalin approved of both decisions, while referring to 'small changes' introduced by himself in one or both texts; see Pis'ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, 1925-1935 gg., Sost. L. Koshelev et al. (Moscow, 1995), p. 243.
9. Pravda, 27 June 1932. For comments on this document, see F. Benvenuti, 'La legalità rivoluzionaria in URSS dal 1932 al 1934', in S. Bertolissi et al., Studi di storia sovietica (Rome, 1978), p. 236; F. Bettanin, La collettivizzazione delle campagne nell'URSS (Rome, 1978), pp. 204-207. In a letter to Molotov, written before 25 June, Stalin approved of both decisions, while referring to 'small changes' introduced by himself in one or both texts; see Pis'ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, 1925-1935 gg., Sost. L. Koshelev et al. (Moscow, 1995), p. 243.
10. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1228, 11. 3 ff.
11. Sovetskaya yustitsya, 1932, 20, p. 2.
12. Bettanin, p. 197. On the 'neo-NEP' nature of these measures see O. V. Khlevnyuk, Politburo. Mekhanizmy politicheskoi vlasti v 1930-e gody (Moscow, 1996).
13. Bettanin, p. 197. On the 'neo-NEP' nature of these measures see O. V. Khlevnyuk, Politburo. Mekhanizmy politicheskoi vlasti v 1930-e gody (Moscow, 1996).
14. Benvenuti, 'La legalità rivoluzionaria', pp. 242-243; Bettanin, pp. 209 ff.
15. Benvenuti, 'La legalità rivoluzionaria', pp. 242-243; Bettanin, pp. 209 ff.
16. RTsKhIDNI, f. 81, op. 3. d. 100, 1. 2.
17. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo, 1932. 7-8, p. 23. The German decree (against 'political terrorism'), in reality, was only adopted two days later, on 9 August.
18. Stalinskoe Politbyuro v 30-e gody, sost. O. V. Khlevnyuk et al. (Moscow, 1995), pp. 61-62, dok. 45 (16 September 1932).
19. Ibid., p. 62, dok. 46.
20. GARF, f. 1235, op. 141. d. 1527, 1. 97.
21. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 162, d. 12, 1. 7. The commission is mentioned again by other reserved documents; see ibid., a. 16, 1. 1 (16 February 1934).
22. GARF, f. 1235, op. 141, d. 1527, 1. 42; see also ibid., f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1354.
23. G. Procacci, Il partito nell'Unione Sovietica, 1917-1945 (Bari, 1974), p. 137.
24. Pravda, 28 December 1932. By a second decision, published on 29 April 1933, peasants (collectivised and not) were not entitled to bear passports - a telling act of social and civil discrimination.
25. GARF, f. 1235, op. 141, d. 1650, 11. 26-27.
26. Ibid., f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1227, 11. 14 ff., 32 ff.
27. Ibid., 11. 82, 85.
28. F. Benvenuti & S. Pons, Il sistema di potere dello stalinismo, 1933-1953 (Milan, 1988), p. 84.
29. I. Stalin, Sochineniya, 13 vols. (Moscow, 1946-51), vol. XIII, pp. 209-210.
30. Pravda, 26 January 1933.
31. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 514, 11. 19-20.
32. Pravda, 18 January 1933.
33. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 914, decision n. 12. The decision is to be put in the context of a discussion at a meeting of the VKP(b) fraktsiya and Presidium of TsIK, in the presence of Sol'ts; and of the issue of a NKYust circular letter prescribing the application of article 162 of the Criminal Code, instead of the 7 August law, in cases of 'small theft'; see GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1254, 11. 38 ff.; see also Sovetskoe gosudarstvo, 1933, 5, p. 18.
34. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 914, decision n. 12. The decision is to be put in the context of a discussion at a meeting of the VKP(b) fraktsiya and Presidium of TsIK, in the presence of Sol'ts; and of the issue of a NKYust circular letter prescribing the application of article 162 of the Criminal Code, instead of the 7 August law, in cases of 'small theft'; see GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1254, 11. 38 ff.; see also Sovetskoe gosudarstvo, 1933, 5, p. 18.
35. GARF, f. 1235, op. 141, d. 1527, 11. 93-96, 84-86: a circular letter by the Supreme Court, of a similar content, had already been issued the year before, in October.
36. Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1933, 7 (April).
37. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 63, dok. 51. The troiki had been formed after a number of TsIK decisions, in 1929-1931 (Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 80 ff.). See also Yu. Borisov et al. 'Politicheskaya sistema kontsa 20-30-kh godov', in Istoriki sporyat, pod obshchei red. V. S. Lel'chuka (Moscow, 1988), p. 286. In July 1931 instructions by the Politburo gave the OGPU three months to decide whether 'political' crimes should be passed over to the ordinary courts or dealt with by the OGPU itself (Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 60, dok. 43). The death penalties were to be confirmed by the party TsK, and in particular by its Political Commission, established in September 1926 (ibid., p. 58, dok. 40). The Chairman of the Politkomissiya 'in the 1930s' was Kalinin; Enukidze acted in his absence. In early 1933 Yagoda became one of the commission's members, and in February 1934 so did Akulov and Vyshinsky (ibid., p. 50, note 1).
38. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 63, dok. 51. The troiki had been formed after a number of TsIK decisions, in 1929-1931 (Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 80 ff.). See also Yu. Borisov et al. 'Politicheskaya sistema kontsa 20-30-kh godov', in Istoriki sporyat, pod obshchei red. V. S. Lel'chuka (Moscow, 1988), p. 286. In July 1931 instructions by the Politburo gave the OGPU three months to decide whether 'political' crimes should be passed over to the ordinary courts or dealt with by the OGPU itself (Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 60, dok. 43). The death penalties were to be confirmed by the party TsK, and in particular by its Political Commission, established in September 1926 (ibid., p. 58, dok. 40). The Chairman of the Politkomissiya 'in the 1930s' was Kalinin; Enukidze acted in his absence. In early 1933 Yagoda became one of the commission's members, and in February 1934 so did Akulov and Vyshinsky (ibid., p. 50, note 1).
39. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 63, dok. 51. The troiki had been formed after a number of TsIK decisions, in 1929-1931 (Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 80 ff.). See also Yu. Borisov et al. 'Politicheskaya sistema kontsa 20-30-kh godov', in Istoriki sporyat, pod obshchei red. V. S. Lel'chuka (Moscow, 1988), p. 286. In July 1931 instructions by the Politburo gave the OGPU three months to decide whether 'political' crimes should be passed over to the ordinary courts or dealt with by the OGPU itself (Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 60, dok. 43). The death penalties were to be confirmed by the party TsK, and in particular by its Political Commission, established in September 1926 (ibid., p. 58, dok. 40). The Chairman of the Politkomissiya 'in the 1930s' was Kalinin; Enukidze acted in his absence. In early 1933 Yagoda became one of the commission's members, and in February 1934 so did Akulov and Vyshinsky (ibid., p. 50, note 1).
40. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 63, dok. 51. The troiki had been formed after a number of TsIK decisions, in 1929-1931 (Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 80 ff.). See also Yu. Borisov et al. 'Politicheskaya sistema kontsa 20-30-kh godov', in Istoriki sporyat, pod obshchei red. V. S. Lel'chuka (Moscow, 1988), p. 286. In July 1931 instructions by the Politburo gave the OGPU three months to decide whether 'political' crimes should be passed over to the ordinary courts or dealt with by the OGPU itself (Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 60, dok. 43). The death penalties were to be confirmed by the party TsK, and in particular by its Political Commission, established in September 1926 (ibid., p. 58, dok. 40). The Chairman of the Politkomissiya 'in the 1930s' was Kalinin; Enukidze acted in his absence. In early 1933 Yagoda became one of the commission's members, and in February 1934 so did Akulov and Vyshinsky (ibid., p. 50, note 1).
41. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 63, dok. 51. The troiki had been formed after a number of TsIK decisions, in 1929-1931 (Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 80 ff.). See also Yu. Borisov et al. 'Politicheskaya sistema kontsa 20-30-kh godov', in Istoriki sporyat, pod obshchei red. V. S. Lel'chuka (Moscow, 1988), p. 286. In July 1931 instructions by the Politburo gave the OGPU three months to decide whether 'political' crimes should be passed over to the ordinary courts or dealt with by the OGPU itself (Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 60, dok. 43). The death penalties were to be confirmed by the party TsK, and in particular by its Political Commission, established in September 1926 (ibid., p. 58, dok. 40). The Chairman of the Politkomissiya 'in the 1930s' was Kalinin; Enukidze acted in his absence. In early 1933 Yagoda became one of the commission's members, and in February 1934 so did Akulov and Vyshinsky (ibid., p. 50, note 1).
42. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 63, dok. 51. The troiki had been formed after a number of TsIK decisions, in 1929-1931 (Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 80 ff.). See also Yu. Borisov et al. 'Politicheskaya sistema kontsa 20-30-kh godov', in Istoriki sporyat, pod obshchei red. V. S. Lel'chuka (Moscow, 1988), p. 286. In July 1931 instructions by the Politburo gave the OGPU three months to decide whether 'political' crimes should be passed over to the ordinary courts or dealt with by the OGPU itself (Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 60, dok. 43). The death penalties were to be confirmed by the party TsK, and in particular by its Political Commission, established in September 1926 (ibid., p. 58, dok. 40). The Chairman of the Politkomissiya 'in the 1930s' was Kalinin; Enukidze acted in his absence. In early 1933 Yagoda became one of the commission's members, and in February 1934 so did Akulov and Vyshinsky (ibid., p. 50, note 1).
43. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
44. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
45. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
46. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
47. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
48. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
49. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
50. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
51. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1, 11. 47-55; for the location at RTsKhIDNI, see Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu, p. 235. On its content, see Bertolissi et al., pp. 249-252; and V. Danilov et al. 'Kollektivizatsiya: kak eto bylo', in Urok daet istoriya, pod red. V. G. Afanas'eva, G. L. Smirnova (Moscow, 1989), p. 169; and Khlevnyuk. pp. 100-101. The document was first published by Sotsialisticheskii Vestnik, 1955, 2-3. It was also found in the Smolensk party archive by M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958), p. 187. The first published reference to the Instruktsiya in the Soviet press was made months later by Kaganovich. at the Moscow Party Conference, gathered in the imminence of the XVII Congress (Pravda, 22 January 1934). See also Krylenko, Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 2.
52. GARF, f. 8131, op. 37, d. 23, 11. 3-4.
53. Ibid., d. 24, 1. 17.
54. Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1933, 10.
55. GARF, f. 1235, op. 141, d. 1510, 1. 10; this opinion was couched in the form of an amendment to the final document made by a meeting of the TsIK KCha (Commission for the Partial Amnesty).
56. Pravda, 21 June 1933.
57. Ibid.
58. GARF, f. 8131, op. 37, d. 24, 1. 251.
59. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 939, 1. 2. After 1923 the OGPU was organised as a sort of People's Commissariat, separated from the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), established the year before. The NKVD of the RSFSR was abolished in December 1930 and most of its functions concerning the maintenance of public order passed over to the OGPU; see T. P. Korzhikhina, Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i ego uchrezhdeniya, noyabr' 1917-dekabr' 1991 (Moscow, 1995), p. 176.
60. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 939, 1. 2. After 1923 the OGPU was organised as a sort of People's Commissariat, separated from the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), established the year before. The NKVD of the RSFSR was abolished in December 1930 and most of its functions concerning the maintenance of public order passed over to the OGPU; see T. P. Korzhikhina, Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i ego uchrezhdeniya, noyabr' 1917-dekabr' 1991 (Moscow, 1995), p. 176.
61. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 942, 1. 2.
62. GARF, f. 5446, op. 27, d. 57.
63. Ibid., 1. 22.
64. Ibid., 1. 20.
65. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 943, 1. 2.
66. GARF, f. 5446, op. 27, d. 57, 11. 1-6.
67. Ibid., 11. 40-42.
68. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 943, 1. 10.
69. Ibid.
70. The resolution is mentioned in GARF, f. 5446, op. 27, d. 57, 1. 1; the present author has not been able to find the full text.
71. Ibid., 1. 22.
72. Sovetskaya yustitsiya, 1934, 11, 13, 17.
73. GARF, f. 8131, op. 37, d. 40, 1. 82.
74. Ibid., d. 42, 1. 4.
75. Ibid., 11. 7-11.
76. Ibid., d. 39, 1. 17.
77. Ibid., d. 40, 11. 14-18. Krylenko's self-excuse, that the measures he had adopted reflected the highest authorities' indications, was not groundless; but nor was Soils' stance. In fact, Politburo decisions on this subject in 1933 do sound contradictory; see RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 162, d. 14, 1. 76 (23 February); ibid., d. 15, 1. 30 (14 August); ibid., 1. 55 (4 November)
78. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 944, 1. 3.
79. Pravda, 19 July 1934; S. M. Kirov, Stat'i i rechi (Moscow, 1934), p. 116. The importance of the theme of legality, in connection with social policy in the countryside, was emphasised by V. A. Golikov et al., Leninskii kooperativnyi plan i bor'ba partii za ego osushchestvlenie (Moscow, 1969), p. 129. Here, however, the initiative of having taken up the issue was attributed to Stalin himself. See also Istoriya KPSS, 4 vols (Moscow, 1971), vol II, p. 432
80. Pravda, 19 July 1934; S. M. Kirov, Stat'i i rechi (Moscow, 1934), p. 116. The importance of the theme of legality, in connection with social policy in the countryside, was emphasised by V. A. Golikov et al., Leninskii kooperativnyi plan i bor'ba partii za ego osushchestvlenie (Moscow, 1969), p. 129. Here, however, the initiative of having taken up the issue was attributed to Stalin himself. See also Istoriya KPSS, 4 vols (Moscow, 1971), vol II, p. 432
81. Pravda, 19 July 1934; S. M. Kirov, Stat'i i rechi (Moscow, 1934), p. 116. The importance of the theme of legality, in connection with social policy in the countryside, was emphasised by V. A. Golikov et al., Leninskii kooperativnyi plan i bor'ba partii za ego osushchestvlenie (Moscow, 1969), p. 129. Here, however, the initiative of having taken up the issue was attributed to Stalin himself. See also Istoriya KPSS, 4 vols (Moscow, 1971), vol II, p. 432
82. Pravda, 19 July 1934; S. M. Kirov, Stat'i i rechi (Moscow, 1934), p. 116. The importance of the theme of legality, in connection with social policy in the countryside, was emphasised by V. A. Golikov et al., Leninskii kooperativnyi plan i bor'ba partii za ego osushchestvlenie (Moscow, 1969), p. 129. Here, however, the initiative of having taken up the issue was attributed to Stalin himself. See also Istoriya KPSS, 4 vols (Moscow, 1971), vol II, p. 432
83. RTsKhIDNI, f. 81, op. 3, d. 163, 1. 50.
84. ibid., f. 17, op. 3, d. 948, 11. 92, 94.
85. Ibid., 1. 95; included in Stalinskoe Politburo, pp. 64-65, dok. n. 54.
86. Ibid., 1. 95; included in Stalinskoe Politburo, pp. 64-65, dok. n. 54.
87. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 948, 1. 99.
88. The Kuibyshev commission had already decided that a commission chaired by Enukidze would start working in order to update the codes, in April 1934; see GARF, f. 5446, op. 27, d. 57, 1. 22. Its original members were Akulov, Krylenko, Vyshinsky, Nazaretyan, D. A. Bulatov and Vinokurov.
89. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 948, 1. 98.
90. Izvestiya, 10 July 1934; Sobranie zakonov, 1934, 36, pp. 282-285. See Korzhikhina, pp. 79-80.
91. Izvestiya, 10 July 1934; Sobranie zakonov, 1934, 36, pp. 282-285. See Korzhikhina, pp. 79-80.
92. Izvestiya, 10 July 1934; Sobranie zakonov, 1934, 36, pp. 282-285. See Korzhikhina, pp. 79-80.
93. Izvestiya, 8 February 1922.
94. Khlevnyuk, p. 55; see also S. Fitzpatrick, 'Ordzhonikidze's Takeover of Vesenkha: a Case Study in Bureaucratic Polities', Soviet Studies, 37, 2, 1985, pp. 153-172.
95. Khlevnyuk, p. 55; see also S. Fitzpatrick, 'Ordzhonikidze's Takeover of Vesenkha: a Case Study in Bureaucratic Polities', Soviet Studies, 37, 2, 1985, pp. 153-172.
96. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 165, d. 47, 1. 2.
97. Ibid., 11. 4-8.
98. Ibid., 11. 13, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28.
99. Ibid., 1. 127.
100. Ibid., 1. 126.
101. Ibid., 11. 140, 146, 149.
102. Ibid., 11. 164, 161-162, 154-155.
103. Ibid., f. 81, op. 3, d. 164, 11. 138, 137, 161.
104. See above, p. 1038.
105. RTsKhIDNI, f. 81, op. 3, d. 164, 11. 34, 40, 38, 44.
106. Ibid., 1. 44.
107. Ibid., 1. 48.
108. Ibid., f. 17, op. 3, d. 954, 1. 38.
109. Sobranie zakonov, 1935, 11, pp. 82-84.
110. KPSS v rezolyursiyakh i reshenivakh s''ezdov, konferentisii i plenumov TsK, 15 vols (Moscow, 1983-1989), Vol. VI (Moscow, 1985), pp. 21-32, 186-191.
111. Izvestiya, 11 July 1934, Editorial.
112. See above.
113. Borisov et al., pp. 286-287.
114. Khlevnyuk, pp. 99-110 in particular. The problem of the general interpretation of the party's politics, and of its inner conflicts, in the mid-1930s is the leitmotiv of the inquiry conducted by Khlevnyuk in the entire book.
115. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1743, 1. 10. See also Borisov et al., p. 289. The 'Kirov laws' were mentioned by Khrushchev in his Secret Report to the XX Congress in February 1956.
116. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1743, 1. 7.
117. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 7, p. 72.
118. Ibid., pp. 82, 85.
119. Partiinoe stroitel'stvo, 1935, 3 and 5.
120. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, p. 143, dok. 126.
121. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 8, pp. 91-92.
122. J. Arch Getty, Origins of the Great Purges (Cambridge, UK: 1985), p. 60. In July, the Politburo and the SNK also decided that 5 million passports already issued to Soviet citizens would be 'exchanged', starting in August: the new ones would be valid for 5 years, instead of the previous three years (RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 968, n. 150; GARF, f. 5446, op. 15a, d. 1264).
123. J. Arch Getty, Origins of the Great Purges (Cambridge, UK: 1985), p. 60. In July, the Politburo and the SNK also decided that 5 million passports already issued to Soviet citizens would be 'exchanged', starting in August: the new ones would be valid for 5 years, instead of the previous three years (RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 968, n. 150; GARF, f. 5446, op. 15a, d. 1264).
124. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 8, p. 82.
125. Khlevnyuk, pp. 145-146.
126. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17. op. 3, d. 963, 1. 67.
127. Ibid., op. 2. d. 547, 1. 70. At the Plenum Stalin approved Enukidze's punishment, in a general reference to secret denunciations made by 'small people': sometimes, the latter would prove to be politically more farsighted than the 'leaders'; see ibid., 1. 61.
128. Enukidze was removed from his commission before 17 June; see GARF, f. 8131, op. 37, d. 59, 11. 20-21; RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 967, 1. 12.
129. GARF, f. 1235, op. 141, d. 1686.
130. Pravda, 19 June 1935.
131. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 965, 1. 75; Khlevnyuk, pp. 148-149.
132. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 969, 1. 14; Khlevnyuk, p. 149.
133. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1621, 1. 1.
134. Ibid., 11. 7-9.
135. Ibid., 1. 10.
136. Ibid., 1. 19.
137. Ibid., f. 5446, op. 15a, d. 1261.
138. Ibid., op. 18a. d. 899; ibid., f. 8131, op. 37, d. 59, 11. 113-114.
139. Ibid., f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1746.
140. Khlevnyuk, pp. 129-130.
141. RTsKhIDNI, f. 667, op. 1, d. 13; in particular: 11. 30 (art. 6), 33 (art. 20, 22), 34 (art. 25), 38 (art. 53. 55, 56), 39-40 (art. 65), 53 (art. 57), 55 (art. 167).
142. Ibid., f. 17, op. 3, d. 971, 1. 3.
143. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1614, 1. 1, 12 ff., 22-24.
144. Stalinskoe Politbyuro, pp. 65-66, dok. 56.
145. GARF, f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1614, 11. 34-36.
146. Pravda, 27 November 1935; Izvestiya, 8 October 1935.
147. Pravda, 27 November 1935; Izvestiya, 8 October 1935.
148. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 972; see also R. Conquest, Inside Stalin's Secret Police, 1936-39 (Basingstoke and London, 1985). p. 14.
149. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 972; see also R. Conquest, Inside Stalin's Secret Police, 1936-39 (Basingstoke and London, 1985). p. 14.
150. Benvenuti & Pons, pp. 113-114.
151. GARF. f. 3316, op. 2, d. 1754.
152. Ibid., 11. 5-8. According to a report by Vyshinsky to Stalin, Molotov and Kalinin, in mid-April 1936, more than 37 000 sentences had been modified: 12 000 (out of 100 000 involved) had been set free (ibid., 11. 20, 28); see also Khlevnyuk, pp. 150-151. The operation of revision was still going on in August 1936, when Vinokurov reported that, since 1932, 80% of sentences to prisons and camps (126 616 sentences) had been referred to articles of the penal code and changed accordingly (ibid., d. 1837).
153. Partiinoe stroitel'stvo, 1936, 7, Editorial; Pravda, 17 March 1936; Getty p 108
154. Partiinoe stroitel'stvo, 1936, 7, Editorial; Pravda, 17 March 1936; Getty p 108
155. Pravda. 26 March 1936.
156. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 9, p. 35.
157. GARF, f. 5446. op. 18a, d. 849, 1. 1, 7.
158. Ibid., 11. 2-4.
159. Ibid., d. 845, 11. 15-17. Yagoda was against this proposal, since it would have destroyed a large part of the 'work' done by the NKVD (ibid., 11. 23-24).
160. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 572, 11. 67, 70, 73-74. A secret letter by the TsK in defence of 'passive' members of the party was circulated on 24 June; see Benvenuti & Pons, p. 134.
161. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17. op. 2, d. 572, 1. 75.
162. Benvenuti & Pons, p. 133.
163. Khlevnyuk, 'Stakhanovskoe dvizhenie: neispol'zovannyi potentsial', Sotsialisticheskoe sorevnovanie, 1990, 5; L. H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR. 1935-1941 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 127.; F. Benvenuti, 'Industry and Purge in the Donbass, 1936-37', Europe-Asia Studies, 45, 1, 1993, pp. 66-67.
164. Khlevnyuk, 'Stakhanovskoe dvizhenie: neispol'zovannyi potentsial', Sotsialisticheskoe sorevnovanie, 1990, 5; L. H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR. 1935-1941 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 127.; F. Benvenuti, 'Industry and Purge in the Donbass, 1936-37', Europe-Asia Studies, 45, 1, 1993, pp. 66-67.
165. Khlevnyuk, 'Stakhanovskoe dvizhenie: neispol'zovannyi potentsial', Sotsialisticheskoe sorevnovanie, 1990, 5; L. H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR. 1935-1941 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 127.; F. Benvenuti, 'Industry and Purge in the Donbass, 1936-37', Europe-Asia Studies, 45, 1, 1993, pp. 66-67.
166. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 4, p. 44; 1989, 5, p. 70; 1989, 9. p. 31
167. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 4, p. 44; 1989, 5, p. 70; 1989, 9. p. 31
168. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 4, p. 44; 1989, 5, p. 70; 1989, 9. p. 31
169. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 981, 11. 50, 58; Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 9, p. 39.
170. RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 981, 11. 50, 58; Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 9, p. 39.
171. GARF, f. 9492, op. 1, d. 1. 1. 44, instructions by Krylenko and Vyshinsky.
172. Circular letter by Vyshinsky, ibid., d. 2, 1. 4.
173. Ibid., f. 8131, op. 37, d. 85, 1. 4.
174. Izvestiya TsK, 1989, 10, pp. 81-82.