Disarming Somalia: The contrasting fortunes of United States and Australian peacekeepers during United Nations intervention, 1992-1993

African Affairs

Volumn 96, Issue 385, 1997, Pages 509-533

  Patman, Robert G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 6244219864     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007882     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. 'Editorial: No Time for Celebration', Somalia News Update (SNU) [Electronic mail], vol 3, no. 22, 27 August 1994; Ioan Lewis, Making History in Somalia: Humanitarian intervention in a stateless society, Discussion Paper 6 (Centre for the Study of Global Governance, London, September 1993), p. 6.
2. 'Editorial: No Time for Celebration', Somalia News Update (SNU) [Electronic mail], vol 3, no. 22, 27 August 1994; Ioan Lewis, Making History in Somalia: Humanitarian intervention in a stateless society, Discussion Paper 6 (Centre for the Study of Global Governance, London, September 1993), p. 6.
3. Disarmament is often defined as both a process and an end state. See Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, revised edition 1992), pp. 73-74.
4. John Drysdale, Whatever Happened to Somalia? (Haan Associates, London, 1994), pp. 47-52.
5. Boutros-Ghali cited in Ken Menkhaus and Terence Lyons, 'What are the lessons to be Learned from Somalia?' CSIS Africa Notes, no. 144, January 1993, p. 4.
6. UN Security Council Resolution 794, dated 3 December 1992.
7. UN Security Council Resolution 794.
8. Ismat Kittani, 'UN Peace Efforts in Somalia', in Kevin Clements and Christine Wilson (eds.), UN Peacekeeping at the Crossroads (Peace Research Centre, Australian National University, Canberra, 1994), p. 135.
9. Reuters, 14 December 1992.
10. The Independent (London), 15 December 1992; John L. Hirsch and Robert B. Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope, (United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington, DC, 1995), p. 59 and p. 83.
11. The Independent (London), 15 December 1992; John L. Hirsch and Robert B. Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope, (United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington, DC, 1995), p. 59 and p. 83.
12. The Age (Melbourne), 15 December 1992.
13. Reuters, 12 December 1992 and 15 December 1992.
14. Reuters, 15 December 1992; The Evening Standard (London), 22 December 1992; The Guardian (London), 24 December 1992.
15. Reuters, 15 December 1992; The Evening Standard (London), 22 December 1992; The Guardian (London), 24 December 1992.
16. Reuters, 15 December 1992; The Evening Standard (London), 22 December 1992; The Guardian (London), 24 December 1992.
17. The Guardian, 16 December 1992.
18. The Evening Post (Wellington), 30 December 1992.
19. Reuters, 17 December 1992.
20. The Age (Melbourne), 15 December 1992; Robertkley, the US Special Envoy to Somalia, noted that 'as long as UNITAF was in the field, the United States was picking up more than 75 percent of its cost'. See Hirsch and Oakley, Somalia, p. 109.
21. The Age (Melbourne), 15 December 1992; Robertkley, the US Special Envoy to Somalia, noted that 'as long as UNITAF was in the field, the United States was picking up more than 75 percent of its cost'. See Hirsch and Oakley, Somalia, p. 109.
22. Clement Adibe, Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Somalia (United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, New York and Geneva, 1995), p. 60.
23. The Guardian, 12 December 1992; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), 1-31, December 1992, p. 10834.
24. The Guardian, 12 December 1992; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), 1-31, December 1992, p. 10834.
25. Daniel Campagnon, 'The Lack of Consideration for Internal Political Dynamics in the International Intervention in Somalia', paper presented at International Colloquim on Integration and Regionalism, Talence, Bordeaux, 17-30 April 1994, p. 19.
26. ARB, 1-31 December 1992, p. 10869.
27. Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1993) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them, Security Council Document S/1994/653, p. 13; ARB, 1-31 December 1992, p. 10834 and 1-31 January 1993, p. 10869.
28. Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1993) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them, Security Council Document S/1994/653, p. 13; ARB, 1-31 December 1992, p. 10834 and 1-31 January 1993, p. 10869.
29. Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1993) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them, Security Council Document S/1994/653, p. 13; ARB, 1-31 December 1992, p. 10834 and 1-31 January 1993, p. 10869.
30. Report of the Commission of Inquiry, p. 21; ARB, January 1-31, 1993, p. 10869.
31. Report of the Commission of Inquiry, p. 21; ARB, January 1-31, 1993, p. 10869.
32. The Observer (London), 17 January 1993.
33. F. M. Lorenz 'Weapons Confiscation Policy During the First Phases of Operation "Restore Hope" ', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 5, 3 (1994), pp. 414-15.
34. Reuters, 30 March 1993.
35. The Daily Telegraph (London), 21 December 1992.
36. 'The United Nations Operations in Somalia', Insight, New Zealand National Radio, 10 July 1994.
37. The Sunday Times (London), 3 January 1993; Lieutenant Colonel Brian Millan, Queenscliff Military Training College, interview with author, 23 January 1995.
38. F. M. Lorenz, 'Weapons Confiscation Policy', p. 415.
39. The Times (London), 1 January 1993.
40. Rakiya Omaar and Alex de Waal, Somalia Operation Restore Hope: A preliminary assessment (African Rights, London, May 1993), p. 29.
41. The Sunday Times (London), 1 January 1993.
42. The Guardian, 4 January 1993.
43. The Dominion (Wellington), 25 February 1993; The Guardian, 25 February 1993.
44. The Dominion (Wellington), 25 February 1993; The Guardian, 25 February 1993.
45. Ioan Lewis, Making History in Somalia, p. 9; ARB, 1-28 February 1993, p. 10904.
46. Ioan Lewis, Making History in Somalia, p. 9; ARB, 1-28 February 1993, p. 10904.
47. The Sunday Times, 3 January 1993.
48. Walter S Clarke, 'Testing the World's Resolve in Somalia', Parameters, XXIII, 4 (1993-94), p. 49.
49. The Sunday Times, 3 January 1993.
50. Report of the Commission of Inquiry, p. 13.
51. Confidential source, State Department's Bureau of Intelligence, 25 January 1994.
52. The Otago Daily Times (New Zealand), 12 December 1992.
53. The Guardian, 15 December 1992.
54. Colonel M. Couton, Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), interview with author, New York, 28 January 1994; Evening Post (Wellington), 26 December 1992.
55. The Guardian, 15 December 1992.
56. The Guardian, 30 December 1992.
57. Reuters, 7 January 1993; The Evening Standard (London), 8 January 1993; The Guardian, 9 January 1993.
58. Reuters, 7 January 1993; The Evening Standard (London), 8 January 1993; The Guardian, 9 January 1993.
59. Reuters, 7 January 1993; The Evening Standard (London), 8 January 1993; The Guardian, 9 January 1993.
60. The Guardian, 12 January 1993.
61. ARB, 1-28 February, 1993, p. 10904.
62. Walter S Clarke, 'Testing the World's Resolve in Somalia', p. 49.
63. The Sunday-Star Times (Wellington), 28 February 1993.
64. ARB, May 1-31 1993, p. 11018.
65. Ambassador David Shinn, Director for East African Affairs, Department of State, interview with author, Washington DC, 24 January 1994.
66. Report of the Commission of Inquiry, p. 14; Bruce Lendon, 'Somalia: International Intervention in a Failed State', in Kevin Clements and Robin Ward (ed.), Building International Community (Canberra, Allen and Unwin in association with the Peace Research Centre, 1994), pp. 131-132.
67. Report of the Commission of Inquiry, p. 14; Bruce Lendon, 'Somalia: International Intervention in a Failed State', in Kevin Clements and Robin Ward (ed.), Building International Community (Canberra, Allen and Unwin in association with the Peace Research Centre, 1994), pp. 131-132.
68. The Washington Post, 28 March 1993.
69. Report of the Commission of Inquiry, p. 17.
70. Elisabeth Lindenmayer, UN DPKO, interview with author, New York, 27 January 1994.
71. Colonel M. Couton, interview with author, 28 January 1994.
72. Relief aid worker cited in The Times, 7 June 1993.
73. The Australian forces were the only army in the UN operation to receive a letter of commendation from the NGO community in Baidoa; see Peter Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government and Multinational Forces in the Field' in Hugh Smith (ed.), Peacekeeping: Challenges for the future (Canberra, Australian Defence Force Academy, 1993), p. 68 . There was also great national and international pressure for the Australians to extend their stay in Baidoa beyond May 1993. This point was made by Rear Admiral A. M. (Gerry) Carwardine, Australian Defence Force Academy, interview with author, 20 January 1995, and Colonel Bill Mellor, 'The Australian Experience in Somalia' in Smith (ed.), Peacekeeping, p. 64.
74. The Australian forces were the only army in the UN operation to receive a letter of commendation from the NGO community in Baidoa; see Peter Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government and Multinational Forces in the Field' in Hugh Smith (ed.), Peacekeeping: Challenges for the future (Canberra, Australian Defence Force Academy, 1993), p. 68 . There was also great national and international pressure for the Australians to extend their stay in Baidoa beyond May 1993. This point was made by Rear Admiral A. M. (Gerry) Carwardine, Australian Defence Force Academy, interview with author, 20 January 1995, and Colonel Bill Mellor, 'The Australian Experience in Somalia' in Smith (ed.), Peacekeeping, p. 64.
75. Robert Breen, Through Aussies Eyes: Photographs of the Australian Defence Force in Somalia 1993 (Canberra, Department of Defence, 1994), p. 13.
76. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Defence Subcommittee, 8 April 1994, Hansard Report, Canberra, pp. 530-31.
77. Mellor,'The Australian Experience in Somalia', p. 66; Testimony of Colonel Bill Mellor to Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Defence Subcommittee, 12 October 1994, Hansard Report, Canberra, p. 51.
78. Colonel David Hurley, 'An Application of the Laws of Armed Conflict: Operation Solace' in Hugh Smith (ed.), The Force of Law: International law and the land commander (Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, 1994), p. 180.
79. Breen, Through Aussie Eyes, p. 14.
80. Breen, Through Aussie Eyes, p. 15.
81. The Guardian, 17 December 1992; Robert Oakley contests that point but concedes that 'UNITAF and the relief agencies could not find an overall solution to this problem of protection'. See Hirsch and Oakley, Somalia, p. 69.
82. The Guardian, 17 December 1992; Robert Oakley contests that point but concedes that 'UNITAF and the relief agencies could not find an overall solution to this problem of protection'. See Hirsch and Oakley, Somalia, p. 69.
83. Kieseker,'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', p. 71.
84. Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', p. 71.
85. The Times, 15 December 1992.
86. Breen, Through Aussie Eyes, p. 15.
87. Hurley, 'An Application of the Laws', p. 180.
88. Brigadier Philip McNamara, Queenscliff Military Training College, interview with author, 23 January 1995.
89. Major Michael Kelly, 'Legal Regimes and Law Enforcement on Peace Operations' in Smith, (ed.), The Force of Law, p. 202.
90. Colonel Bill Mellor, interview with Pacific Research, 6, 4 November 1993; Breen, Through Aussie Eyes, p. 53.
91. Colonel Bill Mellor, interview with Pacific Research, 6, 4 November 1993; Breen, Through Aussie Eyes, p. 53.
92. The Age (Melbourne), 29 December 1992.
93. Adibe, Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Somalia, p. 74; Colonel Bill Mellor, 'Somalia - A Catalyst for Change in the Command and Control of UN Operations' in Hugh Smith (ed.), International Peacekeeping: Building on the Cambodian experience (Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, 1994), p. 162.
94. Adibe, Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Somalia, p. 74; Colonel Bill Mellor, 'Somalia - A Catalyst for Change in the Command and Control of UN Operations' in Hugh Smith (ed.), International Peacekeeping: Building on the Cambodian experience (Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, 1994), p. 162.
95. Lorenz, 'Weapons Confiscation Policy', p. 415.
96. David Hurley,'An Application of the Laws', p. 185.
97. Colonel David Hurley, Headquarters 1st Division, Australian Army, Enoggera, telephone interview with author, 25 January 1995.
98. Mellor, 'The Australian Experience in Somalia', pp. 62-63.
99. Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', p. 72.
100. Hurley, 'An Application of the Laws, p. 185.
101. Breen Through Aussie Eyes, p. 79; Lorenz 'Weapons Confiscation Policy', p. 424.
102. Breen Through Aussie Eyes, p. 79; Lorenz 'Weapons Confiscation Policy', p. 424.
103. Hurley, 'An Application of the Laws', p. 181.
104. Mellor, 'The Australian Experience in Somalia', p. 60; Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', p. 67.
105. Mellor, 'The Australian Experience in Somalia', p. 60; Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', p. 67.
106. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee, p. 536.
107. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee, p. 536.
108. Mellor, interview, Pacific Research.
109. Kelly, 'Legal Regimes', pp. 199-200.
110. Major Michael Kelly, 'Australian Participation in UN Peace Operations', Submission to Australia's Participation in Peacekeeping, Submissions and Incorporated Documents, Australian Parliamentary Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Defence Sub-Committee, Canberra, 4, 32-40, 1993, p. 17.
111. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee, p. 546.
112. Colonel Robert Shoebridge, Department of Defence, interview with author, 27 January 1995; Martin R. Ganzglass, 'The Restoration of the Somali Justice System', in Walter Clarke and Jeffrey Herbst (eds.), Learning from Somalia: The lessons of armed humanitarian intervention (Boulder, Westview, 1997), pp. 20-41.
113. Michael Kelly, Legal Regimes, p. 201.
114. Kelly, 'Australian Participation in UN Peace Operations', p. 18.
115. Mellor, interview, Pacific Research.
116. Hurley, telephone interview, 25 January 1994.
117. Clan elder cited by Mellor, interview, Pacific Research.
118. Breen, Through Aussie Eyes, p. 110.
119. Carwardine, interview with author, 20 January 1995.
120. The Otago Daily Times, 23 November 1993.
121. 'Substantial American Force Ordered to Somalia', USIA, East Asia/Pacific Wireless File, 4 December 1992, p. 2.
122. Powell cited in 'US Mission to Somalia Necessary and Clear', p. 19.
123. Powell cited in 'US Mission to Somalia Necessary and Clear', p. 16.
124. Submissions of World Vision Australia to Australia's Participation in Peacekeeping, Submissions and Incorporated Documents, Australian Parliamentary Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Defence Sub-Committee, Canberra, 4, 32-40, 1993, p. 15.
125. Kelly,'Legal Regimes', p. 196.
126. The phrase is the author's but it is derived from views expressed by Hurley, telephone interview, 25 January 1995.
127. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee, p. 546; The Washington Post, 21 November 1993; Ioan Lewis, letter to The Times, 4 December 1992.
128. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee, p. 546; The Washington Post, 21 November 1993; Ioan Lewis, letter to The Times, 4 December 1992.
129. Thomas J. Callahan, 'Some Observations on Somalia's Past and Future', CSIS Africa Notes, 158, March 1994, p. 6; Clarke, 'Testing the World's Resolve', p. 49.
130. Thomas J. Callahan, 'Some Observations on Somalia's Past and Future', CSIS Africa Notes, 158, March 1994, p. 6; Clarke, 'Testing the World's Resolve', p. 49.
131. Brian Urquhart 'Beyond the "Sheriff's Posse" ', Survival 32, 3, 1990.
132. Powell cited in 'US Mission to Somalia Necessary and Clear', p. 17.
133. Confidential source, State Department's Bureau of Intelligence, 25 January, 1994.
134. Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee, p. 546; Submission of Major Michael Kelly 'Australian Participation in UN Peace Operations', p. 3.
135. Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', p. 68.
136. Kieseker, 'Relationships Between Non-Government Organisations', p. 68; Ian Wishart, Manager of World Vision Australia's Relief Project Unit, cited in Submission of World Vision Australia to Australia's Participation in Peacekeeping, p. 15.
137. Kieseker, 'Relationships Between Non-Government Organisations', p. 68; Ian Wishart, Manager of World Vision Australia's Relief Project Unit, cited in Submission of World Vision Australia to Australia's Participation in Peacekeeping, p. 15.
138. Murray Domney, International Policy Division, Department of Defence, Australia, interview with author, 27 January 1994: Kieseker, 'Relationships between Non-Government Organisations', pp. 71-3.
139. Testimony of Lieutenant General John Baker, Vice Chief of the Australian Defence Force, to Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade. Defence Sub-committee, 8 April 1994, Hansard Report, Canberra, p. 481.
140. Lewis, Making History in Somalia, p. 2.
141. According to Reginald Stuart, 'Americans have historically found it difficult to step outside of themselves when judging others. And they have rarely realized how much their own values unconsciously smudged the lenses through which they viewed the world', cited in Bradford Perkins, The Creation of a Republican Empire (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993) p. 12.
142. Major General Geoff Carter, Australian Defence Force Headquarters, Canberra, interview with author, 6 January 1995.
143. A Somali agriculturist cited in Omaar and de Waal, Somalia Operation Restore Hope, p. 20.
144. Hurley, telephone interview, 25 January 1995; McNamara, interview with author, 23 January 1995; Millan, interview with author, 23 January 1995.
145. Domney, interview with author, 27 January 1995.
146. Domney, interview with author, 27 January 1994; Testimony of Colonel David Hurley to Joint Standing Committee p. 531.
147. Powell cited in'US Mission to Somalia Necessary and Clear , p. 21.
148. Mike McCurry, press spokesman for President Bill Clinton, cited in Reuters, 3 November 1993; Hirsch and Oakley, Somalia, p. 154.
149. Mike McCurry, press spokesman for President Bill Clinton, cited in Reuters, 3 November 1993; Hirsch and Oakley, Somalia, p. 154.
150. 'Practitioners' Questionnaire on: Weapons Control, Disarmament, and Demobilization during Peacekeeping Operations', in Adibe, Managing Arms in Peace Processes, p. 225.
151. Ramesh Thakur, 'From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement: the UN Operation in Somalia', Journal of Modern African Studies 32, 3 (1994).
152. Miles Armitage, UN Political Section, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, ! Canberra, interview with author, 14 December 1994.