On the edge of exclusion: The changing nature of migration in Cyprus and Malta

Cyprus Review

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 19-49

  Mainwaring, Cetta ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Asylum; Cyprus; European Union; Externalisation; Irregular migration; Malta; Migration; Migration controls; Mixed flows; Refugees

Indexed keywords

EID: 62249099884     PISSN: 10152881     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Although the affects of the division of the island on migration will be addressed, this paper focuses primarily on the Republic of Cyprus and not on the Turkish occupied north known as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)', although unrecognised by the international community or by any sovereign nation, with the exception of Turkey. I will refer to this occupied area as northern Cyprus.
2. The eight other countries to join in 2004 were the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.
3. As of July 2007.
4. See, for example, Floya Anthias and Gabriella Lazaridis (eds.) (1999) Into the Margins: Migration and Exclusion in Southern Europe.
5. Aldershot, Ashgate Publishing; George Katrougalos and Gabriella Lazaridis (2003) Southern European Welfare States: Problems, Challenges and Prospects. Basingstoke, Hampshire, Palgrave Macmillan;
6. Russell King, Anthony Fielding and Richard Black (1997) The International Migration Turnaround in Southern Europe' in Russell King and Richard Black (eds.), Southern Europe and the New Immigrations. Brighton, Sussex Academic Press;
7. Carlota Sole (2004) 'Immigration Policies in Southern Europe', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 30, No. 6, pp. 1209-1221.
8. Anna Triandafyllidou (2001) Immigrants and National Identity in Europe. London, Routledge, p. 90.
9. Mike Haynes (1999) 'Setting the Limits to Europe as an "Imagined Community"' in Gareth Dale and Mike Cole (eds.), The European Union and Migrant Labour. Oxford, Berg, p. 19;
10. Katrougalos and Lazaridis (2003) Southern European Welfare States, p. 169.
11. Nicos Trimikliniotis and Corina Demetriou (2007) 'Cyprus' in Anna Triandafyllidou and Ruby Gropas (eds.), European Immigration: A Sourcebook. Aldershot, Ashgate, p. 56;
12. Nicos Trimikliniotis and Corina Demetriou (2005) 'Active Participation of Immigration in Cyprus', Country Report prepared for the European research project POLITIS, Oldenburg. Accessed from [www.uni-oldenburg.de/politis-europe] on 12 March 2007.
13. GDP is by expenditure, at constant 1990 prices in national currency. For these and other figures, see the UN Statistics Division [http://unstats.un.org/ unsd/default.htm] and the ILO Bureau of Statistics [http://www.ilo.org/stat/ lang-en/index.htm].
14. Trimikliniotis and Demetriou (2005) Active Civic Participation.
15. Nicos Trimikliniotis (2001) The Location of Cyprus in the Southern European Context: Europeanisation as Modernisation?', The Cyprus Review, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Fall), p. 58.
16. See Mark Thomson (2006) 'Migrants on the Edge of Europe. Perspectives from Malta, Cyprus, and Slovenia', Sussex Migration Working Paper. Accessed from [www.sussex. ac.uk/migration/documents/mwp35.pdf] on 6 January 2008; Nicos Trimikliniotis and Panayiotis Pantelides (2003) 'Mapping Discriminatory Landscapes in Cyprus: Ethnic Discrimination in the Labour Market', The Cyprus Review, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Spring), p. 3.
17. Trimikliniotis and Pantelides (2003) 'Mapping Discriminatory Landscapes', p. 3.
18. The service industry also often includes women working in the sex industry. For example, Ramona Lenz reports that many Ukrainians and Russians, among others, report working as 'performing artists' in 'restaurants', often euphemisms for prostitution in cabarets ['Fake Marriages as a "Threat" for the Nation - Migrant Sex Workers in Cyprus' in A. Szczepaniková, M. Canek and J. Grill (eds.) (2006) Migration Processes in Central and Eastern Europe: Unpacking the Diversity. Prague, Multicultural Centre, pp. 34-37].
19. See also Nicos Trimikliniotis and Mihaela Fulias-Souroulla (2006) 'Mapping of Policies affecting Female Migrants and Policy Analysis: The Cyprus Case', Working Paper No. 11 - WP 1, in series 'Integration of Female Immigrants in Labour Market and Society. Policy Assessment and Policy Recommendations', Intercollege Cyprus, December.
20. See Table 4.3 in Trimikliniotis and Demetriou (2007) 'Cyprus', p. 52.
21. See Table 4.2 in Trimikliniotis and Demetriou (2007) 'Cyprus', p. 51 for full breakdown of this figure; These figures are an estimate of the authors as there does not seem to be official numbers which are consistent. For example, the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) estimate that there were 75,000 non-Cypriots in Cyprus in 2005, 15% of which were irregular migrants and 7-8% of which were asylum seekers. However, these figures do not include some Visitors', such as retired persons and students [ECRI (2005) Third Country Report on Cyprus, Adopted on 16 December 2005, p. 53].
22. Thomson (2006) 'Migrants on the Edge of Europe'; Trimikliniotis and Pantelides (2003) 'Mapping Discriminatory Landscapes', p. 4.
23. Trimikliniotis and Demetriou (2005) Active Civic Participation, p. 4.
24. Alvaro Gil-Robles, 'Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles, The Commissioner for Human Rights, on his visit to Cyprus', Office of the Commissioner for Human Rights, 12 February 2004, p. 4; Subsequent estimations by the government raise this figure to 90% (Cyprus Mail, 1 February 2006, 'EU Support on Immigration'; M. Thompson [2006] 'Migrants on the Edge of Europe') and even 97.43% (Henry Frendo, 'Asylum Problems in the EU's Frontier Island States', Times of Malta, 12 June 2008).
25. Emilia Strovolidou and Rupert Colville (2007) 'Cyprus: The Twisted Reality Behind the Statistics', UNHCR, 13 January 2005. Accessed from [http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/41e690364.html] on 15 March 2007.
26. UNHCR (2007) 'Asylum Levels and Trends in Industrialised Countries', p. 12; See Asylum Claims Chart, p. 29.
27. These comparisons are obviously limited. Their calculations were based on the number of asylum applicants in 2007 according to the UNHCR ('Asylum Level and Trends in Industrialised Countries 2007') and the populations given by the CIA fact book for July 2007.
28. Tonio Borg, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Justice and Home Affairs of Malta, Talk by the Hon Tonio Borg, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Justice and Home Affairs to Members of Parliament in Cyprus', 11 September 2007. Accessed from [http: //www.mjha.gov.mfnewa/pressreleases/pdf2007/ 09september/pr_cyprus_110907.pdf] on 3 February 2008.
29. UNHCR, 'Asylum Levels and Trends in Industrialized Countries, 2007, 2006, 2005, 2004'; UNHCR, 'Asylum Levels and Trends: Europe and Non-European Industrialized Countries, 2003'.
30. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2004/114/EC of 13 December 2004 on the conditions of admission of third-country nationals for the purposes of studies, pupil exchange, unremunerated training or voluntary service.
31. Aliens and Immigration Law (Amendment) 184(1) of 2007.
32. Strovolidou and Colville (2007) 'Cyprus'.
33. Henry Frendo, 'Drawing Parallels Between Malta and Cyprus' Times of Malta, 13 June 2008.
34. Strovolidou and Colville (2007) 'Cyprus'
35. See Table 1, p. 29.
36. AI, Country Reports, Cyprus 2007; [http://report2007.amnesty.org/eng/ Regions/Europe-and-Central-Asia/Cyprus]; AI Report 2008, State of the World's Human Rights, Cyprus [http://thereport.amnesty.org/eng/Regions/Europe-and- Central-Asia/Cyprus]; AFP, 'Cyprus Turns Into Dead End for Europe Seekers', 11 October 2007, [http://www.afp. com/english/home/].
37. Nicos Trimikliniotis and Corina Demetriou (2007) 'Cyprus 2007: Racism and Policy Report I', RAXEN National Data Collection Report - Cyprus and Symphiliosi Policy Paper.
38. AI Report 2008, State of the World's Human Rights, Cyprus [http://there port. amnesty.org/eng/Regions/Europe-and-Central-Asia/Cyprus].
39. Trimikliniotis and Demetriou (2007) 'Cyprus', p. 56.
40. Thomson, (2006) 'Migrants on the Edge of Europe', p. 9.
41. Roderick Pace, 'Malta and Cyprus: The Mediterranean Island States' in Zeff Eleanor and Ellen B. Pirro (eds.) (2006) The European Union and the Member State. Boulder, CO., Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 381-410.
42. It is worth noting that although Malta joined Schengen on 1 January 2008, it does not seem to have made a big impact on migration regulation due to it being an island and most visitors arriving by plane, where passport controls are nevertheless carried out.
43. See Malta's Emigrant Commission for a breakdown of migration, including return migration, to and from these countries between 1945 and 1996. [http://www.maltamigration.com/statistics/canada.shtml?s=A30136C0-7D8627175959- 58E8].
44. [http://docs.justice.gov.mt/lom/legislation/english/leg/voL5/chapt217. pdf].
45. [http://www.legislationline.org/upload/old/ acf4e8a7551788d76b660fabfe09a726.pdf].
46. See Table 1, p. 29.
47. Herman Grech, 'Portrait of Africa', The Times of Malta, 11 November 2007.
48. As a comparison, Spain, Italy and Greece have a population density of 90, 193, and 84 per square kilometre, respectively. Within the EU, the closest population density is that of the Netherlands at 393.
49. Calculations made using information from the following sources: [http://www.insee.fr/en/ffc/chifcle_fiche.asp?ref_id=NATTEF02133&tab_id=23], [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6], [http://www.timesonline.co. uk/tol/news/world/europe/article2617427.ece], [http://www.nso.gov.mt/statdoc/ document_file.aspx?id=2158].
50. Judith Crosbie (2007) 'Malta Tells EU Member States to Share Immigration Burden', European Voice, 7 June 2007. Accessed from [http://www.cobcoe. org.uk/Europa 0706 07.pdf] on 21 November 2007.
51. Niklas Luhmann, Malika Bouhénia and Fabrice Giraux (2007) 'Access to Healthcare and Human Rights of Asylum Seekers in Malta. Experiences, Results and Recommendations', Medecin du Monde humanitarian mission report, 2007.
52. Interviews with immigrants in detention and open centres in 2006.
53. As mentioned above, this is not occurring to the same extent as in Cyprus, but irregular migrants are being employed in the construction industry, without proper recourse to the law or to basic labour rights (Source: Interviews with migrants, NGOs and government officials in 2006).
54. The UNHCR also resettled many recognised refugees to other countries. See Table 1, p. 29 for a breakdown of asylum applications made each year in Malta.
55. The Commissioner's Office was set up in January 2002 with only five staff members, which expanded to 13 in subsequent years (Interview with the Refugee Commissioner at the time, Charles Buttigieg, 6 July 2006).
56. National Statistics Office, Malta, 'World Refugee Day 2006', p. 4. Accessed from [http://www.nso.gov.mt/statdoc/document_file.aspx?id=1700] on 15 July 2006; See also Table 1, p. 29.
57. The cost was 320,435 Maltese Lira (€746,385) in the first half of 2006 alone ('Immigrants refused entry into Malta', The Sunday Times of Malta, 16 July 2006).
58. The length of detention was previously indefinite. The 18-month limit, implemented after pressure from local NGOs, resulted in a delegation being sent by the Council of Europe to investigate the matter. The Council subsequently insisted that Malta change its indefinite detention policy. More recently, due to changes in the laws allowing migrants access to the labour market, asylum seekers whose application is still pending after 12 months, must be released from detention. Rejected asylum seekers may be held in detention for up to 18 months. See Jesuit Refugee Services Malta (2006) Asylum in Malta: What You Should Know, p. 23. Accessed from [http://www.jrsmalta.org/Guide_Book_EN. pdf] on 12 June 2008.
59. European Parliament, Directorate-General Internal Policies, Policy Department C, Citizens Rights and Constitutional Affairs, The Conditions in Centres for Third Country Nationals (Detention Camps, Open Centres as well as Transit Centres and Transit Zones) with a Particular Focus on Provisions and Facilities for Persons with Special Needs in the 25 EU Member States', IP/C/LIBE/IC/2006-181, 2006, pp. 119-123; Amnesty International, Open Letter to the Government of Malta', 2002. Accessed from [http://web.amnesty.org/library/ Index/ENGEUR330022002?open&of=ENG-MLT] on 6 December 2005; Alvaro Gil-Robles, 'Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles, Commissioner for Human Rights, on his visit to Malta, 20-21 October 2003', Office of the Commissioner for Human Rights, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 2004; For media reports on the immigrant protests see, Aleander Balzan, Tensions Rise Following Migrant March on Valletta,' EU Observer, 28 June 2006. Accessed from [http://euobserver. com /9/21973/?rk=1] on 30 August 2006.
60. Hal Far Detention Centre 21 July 2006; Safi Detention Centre 22 July 2006.
61. Herman Grech (2003) 'Concern over Detainees' Mental Health,' World Federation for Mental Health.
62. Ministry for Justice and Home Affairs (2005) Irregular Immigrants, Refugees and Integration: Policy Document, Malta, p. 14.
63. Interview, 27 July 2006.
64. European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE), ECRAN Weekly Update, 14 April 2006. Accessed from [http://www.ecre.org/Update/Index. shtml] on 29 August 2005.
65. 'And Justice for All', Malta Today, 15 June 2008.
66. Maria Avraamidou (2007) 'An Odyssey of Fear: African Asylum Seekers Tell their Stories', UNHCR, 19 February 2007. Accessed from [http://www.unhcr.org/ news/NEWS/45d96dae4.html]; AFP, 'Cyprus Turns Into Dead End for Europe Seekers', 11 October 2007. Accessed from [http://www.afp.com/english/home/] on 7 April 2008; Thomson 'Migrants on the Edge of Europe', p. 9.
67. This is not to say that this position is a unique one, as many, if not most, countries today are both countries of immigration and emigration. It is, however, a recent development on these islands, which provides a microcosm to investigate how this evolution is then reflected in policies and how these policies in turn affect the experiences of migrants.
68. A concise and informative article can be found here: Gerry Van Kesse (2001) 'Global Migration and Asylum', Forced Migration Review, Issue 10 (April). This issue of Forced Migration Review commemorates the 50th anniversary of the UNHCR and might be useful in its entirety.
69. Article 1 of the Convention defines a refugee as: "A person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it".
70. Trimikliniotis and Demetriou (2005) 'Active Civic Participation', pp. 15-19.
71. Interview with Katrine Camilleri, Assistant Director and Lawyer for Jesuit Refugee Services, 26 June 2006; Interview with Joseph Abela, a Labour Member of Parliament also affiliated with the Peacelab, a religious-based NGO that houses migrants, 19 July 2006.
72. Interview, 26 June 2006.
73. See Liza Schuster (2003) 'Common Sense or Racism? The Treatment of Asylum-seekers in Europe', Patterns of Prejudice, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 233-256;
74. Teresa Hayter (2004) Open Borders: The Case Against Immigration Controls. London, Pluto Press, pp. 21-36.
75. Anna Triandafyllidou (2001) Immigrants and National Identity in Europe. London, Routledge; Anthias and Lazaridis, Into the Margins, pp. 1-11.
76. Derek McGhee (2006) 'Getting "Host" Communities On Board: Finding the Balance Between "Managed Migration" and "Managed Settlement" in Community Cohesion Strategies', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 111-128.
77. Stavroula Philippou (2006) 'Curricular Intervention and Greek-Cypriot Pupils' Constructions of Citizenship: Can "Europe" Include Immigrants?' in Bradley, A.D. Levinson and E. Doyle Stevick (eds.), Reimagining Civic Education: How Diverse Societies Form Democratic Citizens. New York, Rowman and Littlefield Publishing, pp. 91-116.
78. See also Nicos Trimikliniotis (2004) 'Mapping Discriminatory Landscapes in Cyprus: Ethnic Discrimination in a Divided Education System', The Cyprus Review, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Spring), pp. 53-86.
79. Interview with Paul Pace, Director of Jesuit Refugee Services, Malta, 26 June 2006; Interview with Neil Falzon, UNHCR Malta Representative, 27 July 2006.
80. [http://www.sussex.ac.uk/sei/documents/maltese2.pdf].
81. Nicos Trimikliniotis (2001) The Location of Cyprus', p. 12; For a more full discussion of the affects of EU membership on Malta and Cyprus, see Pace, 'Malta and Cyprus'.
82. Ibid.
83. Nevertheless, this restriction has not been enforced as no EU national's work permit has been refused. Katia Amore (2005) 'Active Civic Participation of Immigrants in Malta', Country Report prepared for the European research project POLITIS, Oldenburg, p.16. Accessed from [http://www.uni-oldenburg.de/politis- europe/download/Malta.pdf] on 1 July 2008.
84. For a map see [http://www.sarmalta.gov.mt/sar_in_Malta.htm].
85. Interview with Mario Caruana and Charles Deguara, respectively the Director of Policy Development and the Permanent Secretary at the Ministry for Justice and Home Affairs, 10 July 2006; Interview with Joseph Muscat, Maltese Member of the European Parliament, 7 July 2006; Interview with Refugee Commissioner, Charles Buttigieg, 6 July 2006.
86. For map, see [http://www.shipping.gov.cy/search_and_rescue/index.htm].
87. Helena Smith, The New Frontier', The Guardian, 24 June 2004; [http://www. shipping.gov.cy/search_and_rescue/index.htm].
88. Italy initially also refused to cooperate, claiming the Nautilus II is futile without Libyan support. One can see from the FRONTEX reports that Spain, on the other hand, has been able to turn back migrants due to their agreement with Senegal and Mauritania. FRONTEX, 'HERA 2008 and NAUTILUS 2008 Statistics'. Accessed from [http://www. frontex.europa.eu/newsroom/news_releases/art40.html] on 30 October 2008; See also 'Tidal Wave', The Economist, 21 June 2007.
89. Council of the European Union, 'European Pact on Immigration and Asylum', 13440/08 ASIM 72, Brussels, 24 September 2008.
90. Didier Bigo, Sergio Carrera, Elspeth Guild and R.B.J. Walker, The Changing Landscape of European Liberty and Security: Mid-term Report on the Results of the CHALLENGE Project', CHALLENGE Paper No. 4, February 2007.
91. Sergio Carrera and Elspeth Guild, The French Presidency's European Pact on Immigration and Asylum: Intergovernmentalism vs. Europeanisation? Security vs. Rights?', Centre for European Policy Studies Policy Brief, No. 170, September 2008.
92. 'Cyprus Pledges to Help Malta on Migration Pact', Times of Malta, 25 October 2008.
93. See Jørgen Carling (2007) 'Migration Control and Migrant Fatalities at the Spanish-African Borders', International Migration Review, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 316-343;
94. Paolo Cuttitta (2007) The Changes in the Fight against Illegal Immigration in the Euro-Mediterranean Area and in Euro-Mediterranean Relations', The Changing Landscape of European Liberty and Security (CHALLENGE), Working Package 8, Working Paper Month 24. Accessed from [http://www.libertysecurity. org/article1293.html] on 1 June 2008;
95. Hein de Haas (2007) 'Myth of Invasion: Irregular Migration from West Africa to the Maghreb and the European Union', International Migration Institute Research Report, James Martin 21st Century School, University of Oxford;
96. Derek Lutterbeck (2006) 'Policing Migration in the Mediterranean', Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 11, No. 1 (March), pp. 59-82.
97. Jeff Crisp (2003) 'A New Asylum Paradigm? Globalization, Migration and the Uncertain Future of the International Refugee Regime', UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper No. 100, UNHCR, Geneva;
98. Gregor Noll (2003) 'Visions of the Exceptional: Legal and Theoretical Issues Raised by Transit Processing Centres and Protection Zones', European Journal of Migration and Law, Vol. 5, No. 3.
99. See for example, Emma Haddad (2008) The External Dimension of EU Refugee Policy: A New Approach to Asylum?', Government and Opposition, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 190-205.
100. Liza Schuster (2005) The Realities of a New Asylum Paradigm', University of Oxford Centre on Migration Policy and Society Working Paper No. 20;
101. Rutvica Andrijasevic (2007) 'How to Balance Rights and Responsibilities on Asylum at the EU's Southern Border of Italy and Libya', University of Oxford Centre on Migration Policy and Society (COMPAS) Working Paper No. 27. Accessed from [http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/publications /Working%20papers/ Rutvica%20Andrijasevic%20WP0627.pdf] on 18 October 2007.
102. Jeff Crisp (2003) 'A New Asylum Paradigm? Globalization, Migration and the Uncertain Future of the International Refugee Regime', UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper No. 100, UNHCR, Geneva, p. 12.
103. See [http://fortresseurope.blogspot.eom/2005/12/eritrea-voices-of- torture.html].
104. Bernard Busuttil (2008) 'Malta Repatriates 2,777 Immigrants in Four Years', Independent, 25 June 2008.
105. Nicos Trimikliniotis (2007) Network on the Free Movement of Workers within the European Union: Cyprus Report 2007, European Commission.
106. Paolo Cuttitta (2007) The Changes in the Fight against Illegal Immigration in the Euro-Mediterranean Area and in Euro-Mediterranean Relations', The Changing Landscape of European Liberty and Security (CHALLENGE), Working Package 8, Working Paper Month 24. Accessed from [http://www.libertysecurity. org/article1293.html] on 1 June 2008;
107. Derek Lutterbeck (2006) 'Policing Migration in the Mediterranean', Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 11, No. 1 (March), pp. 59-82;
108. Andrew Geddes (2005) 'Europe's Border Relationships and International Migration Relation', Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 787-806.
109. See for example, the report on Libya by Human Rights Watch: Human Rights Watch (2006) Stemming the Flow: Abuses Against Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Refugees, Vol. 18, No. 5 (September).
110. Lutterbeck (2006) 'Policing Migration'; Andrijasevic, 'How to Balance Rights and Responsibilities'.
111. These numbers are obviously inherently difficult to estimate and range quite widely. For example, in the summer of 2006, Franco Frattini estimated that around 3,000 people died trying to cross the Mediterranean. (ANSA, 13 September 2006, cited in Cuttitta, The Changes in the Fight', p. 4). Nevertheless, they indicate the tragic loss of human life resulting from restrictive immigration controls and desperate attempts by people to improve their lives; 'Morocco: Investigate Migrant Deaths at Sea. Navy Sailors Accused of Deliberately Sinking Boat', Human Flights Watch, 9 May 2008. Accessed from [http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/09/morocc18784.htm] on 16 June 2008;
112. Ian Fisher (2007) 'Fewer Migrants Crossing Mediterranean to Europe', International Herald Tribune, 26 August 2007. Accessed from [http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/26/europe/immig.php] on 8 June 2008.
113. This argument is made by the European Commission with regard to FRONTEX patrols [http://ec.europa.eu/snapshot2006/immigration/immigration_en.htm].
114. Lutterbeck (2006) 'Policing Migration'; Cuttitta, The Changes in the Fight', p. 4.
115. Michael Frendo (2006) 'Small Country, Big Problem: Illegal Immigration', International Herald Tribune, 16 July 2006. Accessed from [http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/07 /16/opinion/edfrendo.php] on 15 May 2008.
116. See for example, Teresa Hayter (2004) Open Borders: The Case Against Immigration Controls. London, Pluto Press. Here I do not address the benefits of migration for sending and receiving states generally, but confine my argument to the affects of border controls.
117. For a good analysis of the effects of migrants on the labour market, see the chapter on 'Migrants and Minorities in the Labour Force' in Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller (2003) The Age of Migration: International Population Movement in the Modern World. Basingstoke, Hampshire, Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 178-197.
118. Saskia Sassen (1988) The Mobility of Labor and Capital: A Study in International Investment and Labor Flow. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 36-37.
119. Gary Wayne White v. Athletic Association Kition (AEK) Larnaca et al, Cyprus/Supreme Court case 49/2006 (20 June 2007) cited in Nicos Trimikliniotis and Corina Demetriou, 'Cyprus 2007: Racism and Policy Report I', RAXEN National Data Collection Report - Cyprus and Symphiliosi Policy Paper, 2007.
120. For an interesting discussion of the effect of the normalisation of these practices, along with dispersal, see Liza Schuster (2004) The Exclusion of Asylum Seekers in Europe', Centre on Migration, Policy and Society Working Paper No. 1, University of Oxford.
121. As discussed in the 'Public and Media Discourses' section above. For a very comprehensive review of discrimination in Cyprus, see Trimikliniotis and Demetriou, 'Cyprus 2007: Racism and Policy Report I'.
122. Solé, 'Immigration Policies', p. 1219;
123. Anna Terrón i Cusi (2005) 'Conceptual and Political Approaches to Integration: A Mediterranean Perspective' in Rita Süssmuth and Werner Weidnenfeld (eds.), Managing Integration: The European Union's Responsibilities Towards Immigrants. Gutersloh, Germany, Berteismann Stiftung, p. 33.
124. For a broader discussion of how Southern European migration policies have been influenced by the EU, see Andrew Geddes (2003) The Politics of Migration and Immigration in Europe. London, Sage Publications, pp. 157-172.
125. Although the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (and more recently Sarkozy's Union for the Mediterranean) has attempted to overcome these divisions, they have largely failed and generally have focused primarily on economic liberalisation. For more on these agreements, Russell King and Marco Donati (1997) The "Divided" Mediterranean', in Ray Hudson and Alan Williams (eds.), Divided Europe: Society and Territory. London, Sage, pp. 152-162;
126. See also Ronald Skeldon (1997) Migration and Development: A Global Perspective. Essex, Longman.
127. Anthias and Lazarides (1999) Into the Margins, p. 3.
128. Martin Baldwin-Edwards (2004) The Changing Mosaic of Mediterranean Migrations' in Migration Information Source. Accessed from [http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=230] on 5 December 2005;
129. Katrougalos and Lazaridis, Southern European Welfare States, pp. 167-191.
130. Baldwin-Edwards (2004) The Changing Mosaic'.