The construction of children as an object of international relations: The Declaration of Children's Rights and the Child Welfare Committee of League of Nations, 1900 - 1924

International Journal of Children's Rights

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 103-147

  Marshall, Dominique ^a  

^a CARLETON UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61849162489     PISSN: 09275568     EISSN: 15718182     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/15718189920494309     Document Type: Article

References (322)

1. Students of children's rights have already written the history of the Declaration of Geneva. See Philip E. Veerman who devotes one chapter to the League in The Rights of the Child and the Changing Image of Childhood, Dordrecht/Boston/London, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991. Coll. International Studies in Human Rights.
2. See also Elisa Chanlett and G. M. Morier, "Declaration of the Rights of the Child", International Child Welfare Review, 22(1968), pp. 4-8;
3. Geraldine Van Bueren, dir., International Documents on Children, Save the Children/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 1993, pp. xv, 48;
4. Eglantyne Jebb, Founder of Save the Children, London, Save the Children, 1994, Information sheet 15, 8 p.;
5. Rodney Breen SCF Archivist, Claiming Rights for Children. The Drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, London, SCF, 1994, Archive paper No. 1, 7 p. Historians of the League have devoted chapters to humanitarian endeavours. For general histories of the social work of the League
6. see F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations, London, Oxford University Press, 1965(1952), chapters 16 and 60;
7. F. S. Northedge, The League of Nations. Its Life and Times, 1920-1946, Leicester University Press, 1986, chapter 8 "The betterment of life";
8. League of Nations, The Development of International Cooperation on Economic and Social Affairs, Report of the Special Committee, 1939, A.23. 1939;
9. Charlotte Whitton, Canada and the World's Child Welfare Work, Ottawa, Social Science Council of Canada and Canadian Council of Child Welfare, 1927;
10. League of Nations, Information section, Social and Humanitarian Activities, 1931;
11. Martin David Dubin, "Towards the Bruce Report: the economic and social programs of the League of Nations in the Avenol Era", in La Société des Nations: rétrospective. Actes du Colloque/The League of Nations in Retrospect. Proceedings of the Symposium. Organized by the UN Library and the Graduate Institute of International Studies, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, NY, 1983. UNL, Geneva, Serial Publ., Séries E, Guides and Studies, 3;
12. Victor-Yves Ghébali, "Aux origines de l'ECOSOC: l'évolution des commissions et organisations techniques de la SDN", Annuaire français de droit international, 1972, pp. 469-511. For studies of some aspects of the work of the Child Welfare Committee
13. see Marcel Revest, La protection de l'enfance devant la société des Nations, Paris, Pedone, 1936;
14. Patricia T. Rooke and Rudy L. Schnell "'Uncramping child life': international children's organizations, 1914-1939", in Paul Weindling, ed. International Health Organisations and Movements, 1918-1939, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 176-202;
15. "Internationalizing a Discourse: Children at Risk, the Child Welfare Committee, and the League of Nations", New Education, 14(1992), pp. 61-72. However, there is no analysis of the broad implications of the Charter and of the Child Welfare Committee. Most analysts agree that the history of legal changes in relation to society remains one of the least-studied aspects of children's rights.
16. See for instance Steward Asquith and Malcolm Hill, " Introduction", Justice for Children, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1994, p. 12;
17. Philip Alston, "The Best Interest Principle: Towards a Reconciliation of Culture and Human Rights", in The Best Interest of the Child, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1994, pp. 1-25.
18. Covenant of the League, article 23. The Treaty of Versailles also mentioned the protection of the Young in its preamble (Quoted in Veerman, The Rights of the Child, p. 156).
19. Ghébali, "Aux origines de l'ECOSOC", p. 473.
20. Ghébali, "Aux origines de l'ECOSOC".
21. Second International Congress for the Protection of Child Life of 1921, Leaflet included in PRO, FO371/5460, W3362. My translation. On Gustave Ador and child welfare, see Jean-Pierre Gaume, "L'Union internationale de Secours aux Enfants", in Roger Durand, Daniel Barbe and Jean-Daniel Candaux, ed., Gustave Ador. Cinquante ans d'engagement politique et humanitaire, Geneva, Fondation Gustave Ador, 1996, pp. 439-483. Ador was President of the International Committee of the Red Cross between 1910 and 1924 when, in 1914, he founded the Agency for War Prisoners. He represented the Swiss Federation at the League between 1919 and 1924.
22. War orphans, a pressing problem in Belgium, were added to the old list of groups of special children which concerned existing international agencies of child welfare (Henri Velge, General Secretary of the Congress, 22 January 1921, in PRO, FO371/6962). On the history of agencies of relief in Europe in 1918 and after
23. see André Durand, Histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, vol. 2, De Sarajevo à Hiroshima, Geneva, Institut Henry-Dunant, 1978, pp. 133-137.
24. Bulletin de l'Union internationale de secours aux enfants (BUISE), 2, 16 (10 June 1921), p. 201;
25. Minutes of the Executive Committee of the SCIU, 16 December 1920.
26. Crowdy to Drummond, Confidential note, 21 January 1921, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924". Crowdy and Baker were both alluding to the rivalries between the Geneva based ICRC and the American Leagues of Red Cross Societies for the division of responsibilities for famine relief after the departure of the Hoover Fund, which are discussed later.
27. Council Document 127, 22 January 1921, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924";
28. BUISE, 2, 16 (10 June 1921), pp. 201-202.
29. The League had come in direct contact with problems of child welfare in the territories placed under its tutelage, as a "Report of the High Commissioner on the Children of the Free City of Danzig" showed in 1921 (4 June 1921, C.85.1921. 1, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924");
30. the Greek delegate at the International Conference on Traffic in Women and Children of June and July 1921 had also asked if the international office of child protection discussed in Brussels, as discussed later, should not be placed under the wing of the League (30 June 1921, C. T. F. E. 16, ALON, 1919-1927, 12, 14016, carton 656).
31. P. J. Baker, "Note to the Secretary General", 6 December 1920, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
32. Letter of Henderson, Ador, de Geer to the LON, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
33. Crowdy to Drummond, 28 April 1921, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924". In 1922, Nitobe was Director of the Section des bureaux internationaux.
34. See also Minutes of the Executive Committee of the SCIU, 23 December 1920.
35. J. Jaspar, Rapport, January 1919, PRO, FO368/2259, 101742.
36. Claude Hill, Director General of the LRCS, to Drummond, 2 October 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/39431/34652.
37. "Extraits des voeux du IIème Congrès...", ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
38. The League's Secretariat was well aware of these tensions, as it served as an arbiter of the relationships between the four associations. Jebb to Ferrière, 23 September 1919, and letters to Jebb, 25 September 1919 and 15 October 1919, ACICR, file entitled "1914-1918. Union internationale de secours aux enfants - Save the Children Fund". See also John F. Hutchinson, Champions of Charity. War and the Rise of the Red Cross, Boulder, Westview Press, 1996, pp. 290-293;
39. "The Junior Red Cross Goes to Healthland", American Journal of Public Health, 87, 11(1997), pp. 1816-1823. I would like to thank Dr. Hutchinson for his insights on the intentions of the ICRC.
40. Joint letter, 28 June 1921, reprinted in the "Report by Mr. Quinones de Leon and Resolution Adopted by the Council in March 1924", C.146. 1924. Memo of the League of Nations, 24 August 1921, C564. 1922. XII, PRO, FO371/8241, W7253.
41. See Clouzot to Crowdy, 17 June 1921, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B, 13893/11316, R 1028;
42. Claude H. Hill, Secretary General of the LRSC, to Crowdy, 1 June 1921, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B/13896/11316, R1028. Hill invoked the good relationships with the SCIU. The Minutes of the Executive Committee (PVCE) of the SCIU confirm this impression.
43. Letter of Henderson, Ador, de Geer to the LON, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924 ".
44. PVCE, SCIU, 32nd session, 10 February 1921, and 120th session, 24 June 1924, AUIPE.
45. Report of the third General council of the SCIU, in BUISE, 3, 9 (30 March 1922).
46. Jebb to Fisher, British delegate to the Council of the League of Nations, document 06 bis, added to PVCE, SCIU, 27 January 1921;
47. BUISE, 2, 11 (20 April 1921), p. 147;
48. "Compterendu du IVe Conseil Général", BUISE, 4, 4 (10 March 1923), p. 105;
49. Closing speech of Eglantyne Jebb, Report of the IV Congress of the SCIU, BUISE, 2, 28 (10 October 1921), p. 361.
50. Marie-Sylvie Dupont Bouchat, "La Belgique capitale internationale du patronage au XIXe siècle", in Commission royale de patronages, ed., Justice et aide sociale. 100 ans d'évolution, Brussels, Bruylant, 1994, pp. 281-336, here p. 305.
51. Eric Drummond to G. Spicer, Office of Cabinet, Personal, 2 November 1921, PRO, FO371/6962, W11886. Indeed, the second meeting of the Union for the Protection of Infant Life, in 1910, coincided with the short lived Congress of International Unions and Associations, and was encouraged by this association of associations. According to Dupont-Bouchat, theirs was the movement of "new philanthropists", who, having faced socialist protest at the end of the 19th century, had brought to the state the spirit of private charity born with the century and the need to maintain order during the harshest moments of early capitalist development ("Entre charité privée et bienfaisance publique: la philanthropie en Belgique au XIXe siècle"
52. in AREPPOS, Philanthropies et politiques sociales en Europe (XVIIe-XXe siècles), Paris, Anthropos, 1994, pp. 41-44.) Bouchat insists that such ideas were not "daughters of the enlightenment".
53. Clouzot to Crowdy, 1 July 1921, and Crowdy to Clouzot, 7 July 1921, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare, etc. to 30th 1924".
54. Drummond to Gerald Spicer, Offices of the Cabinet, 2 December 1921, draft of a letter, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924". In July 1922, the Comité of the IAPCW held its first ordinary session, and asked the LON to place the association under its authority
55. (BUISE, 3, 22 (10 August 1922), p. 331). George Werner represented both the ICRC and the SCIU on the Comité, and both associations received the right to be represented even if they were not national bodies.
56. For the Secretariat's various interpretations of the article in this case, see ALON, 13B, 13896/11316, R1028;
57. Minute of Van Hamel, Director of the Legal Section, 23 August 1923, 29864/11316, R1028;
58. File entitled "International Association for the Promotion of Child Welfare", ALON, 1919-1946, S152;
59. Minutes, Secretary General. Protection of Children, possibly written by Nitobe, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924 ".
60. Hans Aufricht, Guide to the League of Nations Publications. A Bibliographical Survey of the Work of the League, 1920-1947, New York, Columbia University Press, 1951, pp. 200-201.
61. Drummond to Gerald Spicer, Offices of the Cabinet, 2 December 1921, draft of a letter, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924 ".
62. C.279.1923. XII, 16 April 1923, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondance".
63. Minute of Drummond, 27 June 1923, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B, 29122/11316/R1028.
64. Grahame, 25 April 1923, PRO, FO371/9436, W3217.
65. G. H. Villiers to USSHO, 9 May 1923, PRO, FO371/9436, W3455.
66. LGB, minute, 16 October 1908, PRO, FO338/171, 36026. LGB, minutes, 25 April 1910
67. PRO, FO368/386, 14349.
68. See also Minutes attached to LGB to USSFO, 22 May 1912, PRO, FO368/730, 22015: the opinion was partly based on participation to health conferences in Paris and Berlin. According to a later minute, it may be that the antagonism of the Foreign Office came from an earlier support for a rival organization under a certain Dr. Lust. PRO, FO371/8241, W8188.
69. PRO, FO368/386, 11458.
70. LGB to USSFO, 22 May 1912, PRO, FO368/370, 22015. Student of Paris's early international conventions linked to international exhibition, Rasmussen, asks: "the question of internationalization is a problem: aren't the appeals for gathering more wishes than reality?" She also invites discrimination between a logic by which a national association calls for visiting speakers from abroad and an international understanding of the community. Rasmussen also asks if the congresses are the parents of the internationalisation, or only a step within the movement. Anne Rasmussen, "Les congrès internationaux liés aux expositions universelles de Paris (1867-1900) "
71. Mil Neuf Cent, 7(1989), pp. 27-28.
72. The British National Association of the Prevention of Infant Mortality used the opportunity of a meeting of the International Medical Congress in 1913 in London to call an English speaking conference on Infant Mortality. National Association of the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 6 January 1913, PRO, FO368/910, 1092.
73. See also the Child Welfare Exhibitions held in 1913 and 1914 "to illustrate the progress that is being made all over the world in providing for the mental, physical and social welfare of children. " Neville Foster, Managing Editor of The Daily News, to the Commercial attaché of Rome, 21 October 1913, PRO, FO368/832, 49003. I have presented these meetings in "The Dominion Concept: Inter-State and Domestic Politics in the British Empire", Political Studies Association, British International Studies Association, University of Warwick, July 1998. The papers have been published on a CD-ROM, edited by Fred Nash, in the collection "Political Science Discourse, 1995-1998", Political Science Group, 1998.
74. PRO, FO368/386. Project of association, attached to a letter from the Belgian minister to Grey, 8 January 1914, PRO, FO368/933, 1154.
75. PRO, FO371/6962, 1920.
76. Dupont Bouchat, "La Belgique capitale internationale du patronage", p. 309; on this tendency to merely invite people from abroad to national meetings
77. see Rasmussen, "Les congrès internationaux... ", p. 28.
78. Departement de justice et police de la Confederation suisse au conseil federal, 8 March 1912, PRO, FO368/370, 15980.
79. Departement de justice et police de la Confederation suisse au conseil federal, 8 March 1912, PRO, FO368/370, 15980.
80. Jean-Claude Favez, "Genève et les organisations internationales", in Alexandre Hay, ed., Encyclopedie de Geneve, vol. 8: Geneve, ville internationale, Geneva, 1990, Association de l'État de Genève, 296 p.
81. Dr. Alfred Silbernagel-Caloyanni, "Association internationale et Office international pour la protection de l'enfance", Répertoire de droit international, Paris, 1928, p. 1;
82. "Correspondance avec Dr. Alfred Silbernagel", ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38193/34652;
83. Alfred Silbernagel, "L'Office international pour la protection de l'enfance et la Societe des Nations", ProJuventute, X, 4 (April 1929), pp. 144-146.
84. ALON, 13B, 20982/11316, R1028.
85. Memo of the Secretary General of the LON, C.564.1922. XIII, 24 August 1922, in File entitled "International Association for the Promotion of Child Welfare", ALON, 1919-1946, S152.
86. Carton de Wiart added that "The absence of Great Britain at so important an International gathering would occasion much comment". By then many continental European countries, together with Costa Rica, Japan and China, had promised to participate. Letter transmitted by George Graham, Brussels, to Curzon, 13 May 1921, PRO, FO371/6962, W5360. See also W5411.
87. PRO, FO371/7039 and 7040, W3774. Byrne, HO to FO, 31 March 1913
88. PRO, FO368/104, 15071. For the correspondence between these and the Foreign Office
89. see Belgium Minister to Sir Edward Grey, Secretary of the Foreign Office, 22 January 1913, PRO, FO368/104, 3631.
90. See also the list of British voluntary and local organizations which had joined the Belgium association by 1913, such as the London Medical Office, the children's Court of Birmingham, the English council of Prisons. For the Medical Officer to the LGB
91. see PRO, FO368/33232. For the Chief Inspector of Reformatory and Industrial Schools
92. see S. W. Harris to the Foreign Office, 17 April 1921, PRO, FO371/6962, W6584
93. and PRO, FO371/8241, W3158.
94. "Note" added to PRO, FO371/9436, W2453.
95. Delevingne to Under Secretary of State of the Foreign Office, and Delvigne to Dr. Nitobe, 6 March 1923, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondance". The Spanish delegate on the Council of the League of Nations also feared that such a Committee "may provide an opportunity for the expression of all sorts of opinions which may promote action embarrassing to the governments"
96. (Report of the Spanish Representative, LN, C. 279, 16 April 1923, PRO, FO371/9436, W3056. See also W8314).
97. Harris to Crowdy, 20 July 1923, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondence".
98. Eric Drummond to G. Spicer, Office of Cabinet, Personal, 2 November 1921, PRO, FO371/6962, W11886. He also referred to the large movement of evacuation of Belgian children during the occupation by Germany which had attracted sympathy in many allied countries.
99. LGB to USSFO, 22 May 1912, PRO, FO368/370, 22015.
100. Memorandum on the IAPCW, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondence".
101. Minutes attached to C. Maskens, Belgian chargé d'affaires, to Curson, 24 August 1921, August 1921, PRO, FO371/6962, W9121.
102. Edward Troup, Home Office, to Under Secretary of State of the Foreign Office, 7 October 1921, File entitled "International Association for the Promotion of Child Welfare", ALON, 1919-1946, S152. Mr. Troup also claimed to speak for the Minister of Health, the President of the Board of Education and the British Delegate Mr. Shortt.
103. Clouzotto Crowdy, 17 June 1921, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B/32628/11313, R1028.
104. BUISE, 2, 21 (30 July 1921), pp. 262-264. M. Delaquis was the delegate of the Swiss government. According to the Bulletin, one American "delegate", Mrs. Vermon Kellogg opposed British and Swiss projects.
105. Minutes of the second meeting in Berne, 24 May 1922, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B, 13896/21012, R1028.
106. J. Nitobe, "Report on the First Ordinary Meeting of the Committee of the IAPCW", Brussels, July 1 and 2, 1922, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B, 21012/11316/R1028.
107. Crowdy, Minute, 15 May 1922, ALON, 13B, 20562/11316, R1028.
108. Report of Rachel Crowdy about the IAPCW, ALON, 1919-1946, S152
109. File entitled "IAPCW". Harris to Drummond, quoted in Drummond to Spicer, 2 December 1921, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
110. Dr. Alfred Silbernagel-Caloyanni, "Association internationale et Office international pour la protection de l'enfance", Repertoire de droit international, Paris, 1928, p. 1, reported 27 governments in favour.
111. PRO, FO371/6962, W10732;
112. See also, for the answers, the many documents in PRO, FO371/8241, 1922. The article of the Covenant is the number 24, which concerns "tous les autres bureaux et toutes les commissions pour le reglement des Affaires d'intérêt international qui seraient creéés ultérieurement...". The Belgians discovered the plan through the Cuban government and were "annoyed"
113. (Minute, Tufton, 16 February, PRO, FO371/9436, W1139. On the animosity of Belgium, see also W1610.
114. Memorandum on the IACPW, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondance".
115. Delevingne, Home Office, to Foreign Office, 14 November 1922, PRO, FO371/8241, W9363.
116. Abbott had created a national branch herself, following a visit to the Brussels Office around 1923 (ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/35680/34652).
117. Abbott, to Arthur Sweester, American representant in Geneva, 25 March 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
118. See also Gertrude Seymour to Crowdy, 23 August 1924, and Crowdy to Seymour, 17 October 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare". Seymour believed that "Perhaps no other one question has caused more bitterness, in our United States... "
119. J. Nitobé, "Report on the First Ordinary Meeting of the Committee of the IAPCW", Brussels, July 1 and 2, 1922, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B, 21012/11316/R1028.
120. PRO, FO371/9436, W1966.
121. See also request of the Belgium government, 22 March 1923, C.217.1923. XII, in ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondance" .
122. Memorandum on the IAPCW, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondance".
123. Minute of Drummond, 27 June 1923, ALON, 1919-1927, 13B, 29122/11316/R1028.
124. "Protection and Welfare of Children. Memorandum by the Secretary General", 26 June 1921, C.193.1921. IV, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
125. The Secretary General, although he acknowledged that article 24 did not specifically apply, used the precedents to promote the authority of the League (Memo of the Secretary General of the LON, C.564.1922. XIII, 24 August 1922, in File entitled "International Association for the Promotion of Child Welfare", ALON, 1919-1946, S152).
126. Memorandum on the IAPCW, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Social Questions Section. Children's Welfare. Various Correspondance". S. W. Harris of the Home Office suggested to Mlle Colin of the Brussels Office that international conventions should only be made through the League and that only government representatives should have a right to vote.
127. For a manuscript note of the Belgian Bureau of the LON, spelling out the offer of the Belgium government, n/d and for the insistance of the government, see Drummond to Crowdy, 21 March 1921, all in ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
128. Société des Nations, A. IV, "Quatrième Rapport de la Commission de Contrôle à la Quatrième Commission", p. 4, in ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38884/34652;
129. "International. L'Office international de protection de l'enfance et la Société des Nations", BUISE, 5, 20 (30 October 1924), p. 467.
130. Quoted by Gordon L. Berry to T. J. Johnson, 2 April 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/35597/34652. as the Belgian congress of 1921 did not invite countries previously at war with Belgium, the inclusion in the League made for a collaboration between former enemies, in the spirit promoted by the SCIU. PVCE, SCIU, 38th session, 24 March 1921, AUIPE.
131. ALON, 1919-1927, R1029, 13B/32628/11316.
132. P. J. Baker, "Note to the Secretary General, 6 December 1920, ALON, 1919-1946", Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
133. Peter J. Yearwood, "'Real Securities against New Wars': Official British Thinking and the Origins of the League of Nations, 1914-1919", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 9, 3 (November 1998), p. 103 and suggestions of the author.
134. NAC, Canadian Council on Social Development, MG 28, I 10, Vol. 15, 1927;
135. Whitton to Skelton, 21 January 1937, RG 25, G-1, 1827, 154 - part 1.
136. This represented an important concern of German philosopher Hannah Arendt, by the mid-fifties, when she commented on the rise of the welfare state (The Human Condition, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989).
137. "Memorandum to be submitted by the British Representative to the Fifth Committee of the Assembly", ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38884/34652.
138. The new name was Advisory Committee on Traffic in Women and Protection of Children (ACTWPC); it was divided into the Traffic in Women and Children Committee and the Child Welfare Committee (Council Resolution, June 9, 1925, Official Journal, July 1925, pp. 903-904).
139. Memo (possibly of of P. J. Baker) to Crowdy, 12 March 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
140. See also "Memorandum to be submitted by the British Representative to the Fifth Committee of the Assembly", in ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38884/34652. Protection and Welfare of Children, Note by the Secretary General concerning the adoption by the Fifth Assembly, on September 26, of two resolutions relating to the reconstitution and funding of the ACTWPC under a new name, to handle the questions on both traffic and child welfare, 6 November 1924, C.650.1924. IV. Protection and Welfare of Children, Report with resolutions adopted by the Council, regarding the reconstitution of the ACTWPC [...], 10 December 1924, C.810(1).1924. IV and C.810.1924. Iv. Council Resolution of 10 December 1924
141. Official Journal, February 1923, pp. 135-136, 221-223, and July 1925, p. 903. Resolution of the Assembly, 26 September 1924
142. Official Journal, Special Supplement, No. 21, October 1924, pp. 42-43.
143. League of Nations, Fifth Assembly, Fifth Committee, "IAPC", by Mr. de Brouckère (Belgium), Rapporteur, and "Memorandum to be submitted by the British Representative to the Fifth Committee of the Assembly", both in ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38884/34652.
144. See also "Memo by the Secretary General regarding a resolution to entrust to the Secretariat the work hitherto carried out by the International Association for the Promotion of Child Welfare", August 1924, A.33.1924. IV; "Protection and Welfare of Children", Report of the Fifth Committee to the Assembly, endorsing the Declaration of Geneva, together with two annexes relative to the LON's role in the protection of children, September 1924, A.107.1924. IV; Protection and Welfare of Children, Resolutions adopted by the Assembly, entrusting the work hitherto carried out by the International Association for the Promotion of Child Welfare to the Secretariat of the LON under the auspices of the LON Committees already in existence, September 1924, A.127.1924. IV.
145. Société des Nations, A. IV, "Quatrième Rapport de la Commission de Contrôle à la Quatrième Commission", p. 4
146. dans ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38884/34652;
147. "International. L'Office international de protection de l'enfance et la Société des Nations", BUISE, 5, 20 (30 October 1924), p. 467.
148. "Memorandum to be submitted by the British Representative to the Fifth Committee of the Assembly", ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38884/34652.
149. See also Dr. F. Humbert, to Crowdy, 24 December 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/39431/34652.
150. Crowdy to Dr. F. Humbert, 30 December 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/39431/34652. Harris, Assistant Secretary at the Home Office, had presided over the fist meeting of the Commission on Traffic of Women and Children.
151. One of its eight commissions was the "commission des experts hygienistes en matiere de protection de la premiere enfance", presided by Dame Janet Campbell. Annuaire de la Societe des Nations, 1920-1927, pp. 168-169. On the 1925 inquiry into the protection of children from the hygienic point of view
152. see also A.98.1925. IV and A. 140.1925. IV.
153. Crowdy to Rajchman, 4 November 1924 (?), ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/40110/34652.
154. "Representation of the Health Organization on the Committee on Child Welfare", Extract of the Report #XVII to the Council, Third session of the HO, 29 September-4 October 1924
155. ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/40110/34652.
156. Rajchman to Dr. Th. Madsen, 19 December 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/40110/34652.
157. G. Buchanan to Dr. Th. Madsen, 22 January 1925, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/40110/34652.
158. "The essence of [the] international infant welfare movement was the constitution of babyhood as a medical problem in which mothers were the front-line defense against germs" (R. A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality 1850-1929, Baltimore and London, 1990
159. and P. Wright, "The social construction of babyhood: the definition of infant care as a medical problem", in A. Bryman, B. Bytheway, P. Allatt and T. Keil, ed. Rethinking the Life Cycle, London, 1987, pp. 103-121
160. quoted by Hugh Cunningham, Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500, London, Longman, 1995, p. 153).
161. Crowdy to Abbott, 15 April 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
162. See also the "plan de travail", not dated and presumably from Colin, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare". Apart from the systematic publication of new laws, she suggested as questions for special studies: the dangers of cinema, sexual education and pensions for children in foreign countries. Crowdy to Drummond
163. 15 April 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/34959/34652.
164. Crowdy to Drummond, 15 April 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
165. Crowdy to Drummond, 12 March 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
166. See also Crowdy to Colin, and Colin to Crowdy, 3 October 1924;
167. and Crowdy to Colin, 15 October 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare".
168. Crowdy to Drummond, 17 October 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare".
169. See also Crowdy to Harris, 21 October 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/39943/34652.
170. ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare".
171. See also Colin, memo on the Congress, 7 September 1924, ALON, R681, 12/40770/34652. The SCIU did not want to call the congress the "congrès des droits de l'enfant", its executive body considering that the name would give the false impression that the rights did not already exist. PVCE, SCIU, 124th session, 5 August 1924, AUIPE.
172. "Note confidentielle", not dated, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare". Protection and Welfare of Children, Draft Resolution requesting that the recommendations and resolutions of the first general Congress on child welfare be transmitted to the Advisory Commission for the Protection and Welfare of Children and Young People, 16 September 1925, A.72.1925.[IV].
173. Alfred Silbernagel-Caloyanni, "La question de la réorganisation du Comité de la protection de l'enfance de la Société des Nations", Bulletin international de la protection de l'enfance, 129 (August-September 1933), pp. 598-599
174. At the time of the absorbtion of many of its activities by the League, the Association published a Bulletin for 700 subscribers. Most of its budget came from the governments of Belgium, Egypt and Sweden, and from private donations. Memo of P. Hymans, the Belgian delegate at the Council of the League, 1923, PRO, FO 371, 9436, W10018.
175. Resolution of the Council, 10 December 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/39431/34652;
176. Colin to Abbott, 16 January 1925, R681, 12/42399/34652.
177. Revue internationale de l'enfant, 3, 16 (April 1927), p. 249.
178. PVCE, 117th session, 6 May 1924, AUIPE.
179. Silbernagel-Caloyanni, "Association internationale", p. 4;
180. Silbernagel, "L'Office international", p. 145.
181. Crowdy to Drummond, 25 June 1924; Crowdy to François Melot, Belgium Office of the LON, 26 June 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924". On the confusion created by the IAPCW on its continuation, see also PVCE, 115 session, 8 April 1924, AUIPE.
182. Director General of the LRCS to Velghe, 27 April 1924, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924". The Secretariat continued to send delegates to the annual meetings of the IAPCW periodically (for further relationships between the IAPCW and the LON, see C.537.1925. IV). On the LRCS disapproval of the IAPCW
183. see also PVCE, SCIU, 120th session, 24 June 1924, AUIPE.
184. Colin to Crowdy, 29 April 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/35688/34652. Similarly, a few years before, the SCIU, the ICRC and the Swiss section of the IAPCW, wished that the LON would only be a gathering of countries and that the SCIU would become its private equivalent. PVCE, 115 session, 8 April 1924, AUIPE. Crowdy approved in principle of this project by signifying that she wished to see such a federation based in Geneva (PVCE, 119 session, 10 June 1924, AUIPE).
185. Clouzot to Crowdy, 16 June 1924, ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/36921/34652.
186. ALON, Card catalogue for 1933-1946, Category "SCIU".
187. See also "Editorial. What the League of Nations Can Do for Children", Revue internationale de l'enfant, 3, 17 (May 1927), pp. 323-330.
188. Resolution of the Assembly, 26 September 1924, Official Journal, Special Supplement, No. 21, October 1924, pp. 42-43.
189. Macdonald had attended the congress of the SCIU on children affected by war. BUISE, 1, 21 (10 August 1920), p. 241.
190. PVCE, SCIU, 127th session, 19 September 1924, AUIPE, p. 212.
191. Letter to Mackenzie, and advice of Mr. Weiner, all mentioned in PVCE, SCIU, 127th session, 16 September 1924, AUIPE.
192. PVCE, SCIU, 127th session, 19 September 1924, AUIPE, p. 211. These are Branting, Boncour, Hymans, Mrs. Swanwick, Bonami from Haiti and Guany from Uruguay. The President of the ILO, Albert Thomas, had answered by a long letter describing the existing efforts of his organization
193. ("La Déclaration de Genève à la Société des Nations", BUISE, 5, 19 (15 October 1924), pp. 425-426).
194. PVCE, SCIU, 128th session, 30 September 1924, AUIPE. Ferrière was also the niece of a prominent executive of the ICRC.
195. PVCE, SCIU, 128th session, 30 September 1924
196. AUIPE; "La Déclaration de Genève à la Société des Nations", BUISE, 5, 19 (15 October 1924), pp. 425-426.
197. "La Déclaration de Genève à la Société des Nations", BUISE, 5, 19 (15 October 1924), pp. 425-426.
198. ALON, 1919-1927, 13B/19641/19641, R 1028. The Council of the SCIU was considering asking for the patronage of the League.
199. The same congress had adopted a resolution in favour of the SCIU (PVCE, 27th meeting, 29 December 1920, document 74). A Special committee of the ICW later studied the project in The Hague in 1922 and the Executive Committee had adopted a version to be sent to the national committees for adaptation and submission to their governments, in 1922. George Werner, "Remise de la Déclaration de Genève au Conseil d'É tat de Genève pour ses archives", Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge, 6, 63 (March 1924);
200. BUISE, 3, Supplement to the Bulletin of 30 October 1922. The President of the ICW, Mrs. Chaponnière-Chaix, was present in 1923 when the Council of the SCIU resolved to work on a simple Charter, and she agreed with Jebb's principles
201. (BUISE, 4, 7 (10 March 1923), p. 106).
202. The SCIU was close to many international women's association and attended their assemblies. For the role of Women's associations in the history of children's rights, Veerman, The Rights of the Child, pp. 325-327 and 439-443. On the question of child welfare as a "woman's domain"
203. see Rooke and Schnell, 1992, p. 75;
204. Carol A. Miller, "Lobbying the League: Women's International Organisations and the League of Nations", Ph. D., Oxford, 1992;
205. "'Geneva - the Key to Equality': Inter-War Feminists and the League of Nations", Women's History Review, 3, 2(1994), pp. 219-245;
206. "Women in International Relations? The Debate in Inter-War Britain", in R. Grant and K. Newland, ed., Gender and International Relations, Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1991.
207. "La Charte de l'enfant", BUISE, documentaire, Nos. 1, 2, Suppléments au Bulletin du 30 Octobre 1922. The prime example of a quick formula given there was not retained, which aimed at emcompassing the fight against bad dwellings and the promotion of outdoor leisure: "L'enfant a droit au soleil". In this issue, the SCIU also published "La charte socialiste du travail des adolescents" adopted in Salzburg in August 1922. For the British SCF Charter, see also 30 November 1924.
208. BUISE, 4, 5-6 (20-28 February 1923), p. 79;
209. George Werner, "Remise de la Déclaration de Genève au Conseil d'É tat de Genève pour ses archives", Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge, 6, 63 (March 1924).
210. PVCE, SCIU, 87th session, 1 March 1923, AUIPE.
211. BUISE, 4, 7 (10 March 1923), p. 106;
212. SCIU, The Declaration of Geneva and the Child, Geneva, not dated, p. 9.
213. The SCIU had already experimented with photo-cards with great success (BUISE, 2, 34 (10 December 1921)), p. 449;
214. the old friend of Jebb and manager of the ICRC, Adolphe Ferrière, praised their publicity. About the photo-cards, he invoked the "génie de la réclame américaine au service de la plus sacrée des œuvres, celle de l'enfance souffrante" (article in Le Nouvel Essor, quoted in BUISE, 3, 3 (30 January 1923), p. 47). Documentary films and pictures were also used
215. (see Roland Cosandey "Eloquence du visible. la famine en Russie 1921-1923. une filmographie documentée", Special issue of Archives, Institut Jean Vigo, 75/76 (June 1998)).
216. The same wish to appeal to the masses had motivated Herbert Hoover to find a simple formula of three sentences to describe the spirit of its relief programs which, according to a commentator from the Red Cross, "mettait l'accent sur l'essentiel, afin de frapper directement les masses encore trop insensibles" (Werner, "Remise de la Déclaration de Genève").
217. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, nd (around 1930), AUIPE, 9-10, p. 7. This document whose author and precise date are unknown, appears to be an effort to describe the institution after the death of Eglantyne Jebb.
218. Eglantyne Jebb, Founder of Save the Children, London, Save the Children, 1994, Information sheet 15, p. 4.
219. On the question of charity and photography, see also Nicolas Bouvier and Michèle Mercier, Guerre et humanité. Un siècle de photographie. les archives du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, Genève, Skira, 1995.
220. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, nd (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 12.
221. Werner, "Remise de la Déclaration de Genève", p. 155.
222. Alfred Zimmern, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, London, Macmillan, 1936, pp. 40-41.
223. His reflection on similar circumstances leading to similar problems and needs meets Dupont Bouchat's, in "La Belgique capitale internationale du patronage", p. 320.
224. Ghébali, "Aux origines de l'ECOSOC", p. 473.
225. Ghébali suggests many references. Northedge, The League of Nations, pp. 166-168.
226. BUISE, 5, 13 (15 July 1924), p. 289.
227. Amongst the three hundreds of participants, eighty came from abroad, from 19 countries and 10 international associations (BUISE, 5, 20 (30 October 1924), p. 449).
228. Werner, "Remise de la Déclaration de Genève", pp. 153-161.
229. Also reprinted in BUISE, 5, 5 (15 March 1924), pp. 108-110. By 1925, the SCIU had published 35 000 booklets reproducing the Declaration in many languages (AUISE, Fifth Edition, 1925).
230. Representatives of the League and of the ILO had been present at the official ceremony of February 1924 by which the SCIU gave the Declaration to the Conseil d'É tat de Genève. BUISE, 5, 5 (15 March 1924), pp. 106-107.
231. André Liechtenberger, "Les droits de l'enfant", Vers la santé (Journal of the League of Red Cross Societies), 6 (June 1924)
232. mentioned in PVCE, SCIU, 121th session, 8 July 1924
233. AUIPE; "Déclaration de Genève", L'Illustration (Paris), 15 March 1924
234. quoted in BUISE, 5 (30 April 1924), p. 171;
235. Henriette Herzfelder, Neue Illustrierte Zeitung, Vienna, 20 January 1924
236. quoted in BUISE, 5, 6 (30 March 1924), p. 130;
237. Izviestia (Moscow), 22 January 1923
238. mentioned in BUISE, 5 (30 April 1924), p. 172;
239. Tobie Jonckheere, Directeur de l'É cole normale et professionnelle de l'Université de Bruxelles, le Soir, reprinted in BUISE, 5, 10 (30 May 1924), pp. 223-225;
240. Wilhelmine Mohr, Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 April 1924
241. reprinted in BUISE, 5, 11 (15 June 1924), pp. 244-247.
242. BUISE, 5 (30 April 1924), p. 171;
243. BUISE, 5, 23 (15 December 1924), p. 541.
244. In August 1924, the Conférence juive de secours à la Tchécoslovaquie signed it (BUISE, 5, 17 (15 September 1924), p. 388).
245. PVCE, SCIU, 87th session, 1 March 1923, AUIPE; Werner, "Remise de la Déclaration de Genève".
246. PVCE, 95th session, 28 June 1923 and 107th session, 18 December 1923, AUIPE.
247. Mohr, Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. French historian Stéphane Audoin-Rousseau argues that, in France, another symbol than the child as a victim, that of the child as a heroic soldier flourished: because the country was marked by a revolutionary past, by the defeat of 1871 and crossed by the trenches of the Great War, the whole society invested more in the war than the "cultures of war" of Germany and Great-Britain (La guerre des enfants (1914-1928)
248. Paris, A. Colin, 1993, summarized in "Quand les enfants font la guerre", L'Histoire, 169 (September 1993), pp. 6-12).
249. Murray Last, "Putting Children First", Disasters, 18, 3(1994), pp. 193-194.
250. Speech of Mrs. R. M. Frick-Cramer summarized in "La Déclaration des droits de l'enfant", Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge, 45, 533 (May 1963), p. 211.
251. Speech of Mme E. Frick-Cramer XXe Anniversaire, Genève, 1940, pp. 41, 38;
252. Alice Salomon, Eglantyne Jebb, 1876-1928, Genève, 1936, p. 31.
253. See also Henriette Herzfelder, Neue Illustrierte Zeitung, Vienna, 20 January 1924
254. quoted in BUISE, 5, 6 (30 March 1924), p. 130: "La Croix-Rouge [...] a vu là son idée - le secours aux blessés de la guerre - recevoir une nouvelle application et une prodigieuse extension. " Herzfeller also defended the movement against charges of being "une émotion passagère de cœurs compatissants."
255. XXe Anniversaire, 1940, p. 41.
256. Jonathan F. Vance, Objects of Concern: Canadian Prisoners of War Through the Twentieth Century, Vancouver, UBC Press, 1994;
257. Leonard Smith, Between Mutiny and Obedience, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994.
258. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, not dated (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 1.
259. Jebb to Suzanne Ferrière, 20 February 1923, quoted in Breen, Claiming Rights for Children, pp. 3-4.
260. Jane Addams, America, President of the Women's International League, Conference on the International Aspects of Child Welfare Work, sheet VI, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924 ".
261. Miss Courtney, July 18 1921, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924"
262. Sheets II and III; ALON, 1919-1927, 12, 13513, carton 645. The Congress had made recommendations to secure permanent structures of co-operation, which they transmitted to the League of Nation's Secretariat.
263. Message of the Executive Committee to the branches, signed by de Geer, 17 November 1922, document 440, in ACICR, UISE Généralités, file entitles "Correspondance 1924-1925 ": "aux souffles nationaux d'héroïsme [et d'abnégation] a succé dé, partout, un souffle international de pitié."
264. XXVe anniversaire, 1945, p. 25.
265. See also Eglantyne Jebb, Founder of Save the Children, London, Save the Children, 1994, Information sheet 15, p. 6. The UISE believed that it was the first to promote, for children, "une nouvelle conception de la solidarité; elle a frayé le chemin à une nouvelle notion de prévoyance assurant des résultats constructifs et permanents"
266. (UIPE, Trente ans au service de l'enfance du monde, 1920-1950, Genève, p. 12). On the evolution of European charities towards children from the "moralisation of the poor" to the saving of children in danger to prevent delinquency, see Dupont-Bouchat, p. 333.
267. E. Bougrain de Vaux, Comité girondin du SCF, 17 December 1922, "UISE Généralités", third folder, Binder entitled "Correspondance 1924-1925", ACICR.
268. Jebb appears to have been at odds with the London Committee of the SCF and with the National Council of Women (Breen, Claiming Rights for Children, p. 4).
269. Memo concernant l'UISE, 1930, pp. 9-10, my translation.
270. Quoted in "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, nd (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 14. This document whose author and precise date are unknown, appears to be an effort to describe the institution after the death of Eglantyne Jebb.
271. Hugh Cunningham, "The Rights of the Child from the Mid-Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Century", Aspects of Education, 50(1994), pp. 4, 9.
272. F. S. Northedge, "Intellectual Co-operation within the League of Nations. Its conceptual basis and lessons for the present", Ph. D. thesis, International Relations, University of London, 1953, p. 3.
273. Irène Théry, "Vie privée et monde commun. Réflexions sur l'enlisement gestionnaire du droit", Le Débat, 1995, p. 139.
274. Quoted in SCF Record, BUISE, 3, 30 (30 October 1922 P, pp. 459-460;
275. see also Union internationale de protection de l'enfance, Trente ans au service de l'enfance du monde, 1920-1950, Genève, p. 4. On the Belgian reformers' uses of public opinion before the war, to recruit volunteers to perform tasks of social control, in the absence of means of state intervention
276. see Dupont Bouchat, "La Belgique capitale internationale du patronage", pp. 313-314.
277. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, not dated (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 5.
278. BUISE, 3, 15 (30 May 1922), pp. 226-227. All political parties also gave their support, according to the Secretary of the SCF, M. L. Golden, and "toutes les couches de la population"
279. ("Grande-Bretagne. L'action des Dominions en faveur de la Russie", BUISE, 3, 27 (30 September 1922), p. 417).
280. Dr. Hilda Clark, England, Head of the Friend's Relief Mission in Vienna, Conference on the International Aspects of Child Welfare Work, sheet III, ALON, 1919-1946, Section Files, Social, S152, 7, File entitled "Child Welfare etc., to June 30th 1924".
281. Mrs. de Bunsen, "Coup d'œil en avant", The Record of the Save the Children Fund, 3, 2 (December 1922)
282. reprinted in BUISE, 4, 1 (10 January 1923), p. 13. It is interesting that the Convention of 1990 abandoned the principle of children first.
283. Solomon, Eglantyne Jebb..., p. 39.
284. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, not dated (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 18, my translation.
285. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", p. 5.
286. "Déclaration de Genève", L'Illustration (Paris), 15 March 1924
287. quoted in BUISE, 5 (30 April 1924), p. 171
288. Cunningham, "The Rights of the Child", p. 9.
289. BUISE, 3, 33 (30 January 1922), pp. 34-35.
290. For this, he deserved to be called, 'the children's Pope'. In 1920, the Archbishop of Canterbury, however, decided not to support the appeal to Anglican churches the SCIU desired. PVCE UISE, 1920, 21st meeting, AUIPE.
291. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, nd (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 3.
292. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, nd (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 2. There were limits to this cooperation, however: the British government had promised to match the British donations so that the SCF had to manage the British donations in a separate way which prevented the wish of the Pope for a common fund (Lord Weardale to Clouzot, 9 June 1920, in ACICR, file entitled "1914-1918. Union internationale de secours aux enfants - Save the Children Fund").
293. BUISE, 5, 20 (30 October 1924), p. 453.
294. Document 160 of the General Assembly of the League, 4 December 1920, deposited in PRO, FO371/4717, C13348. A.20/48/160.[IV], December 2 1920.
295. See also Protection and Welfare of Children. Report and resolution of Committee II concerning the intervention in favour of children in countries which have suffered from the war, A.20/48/239.[IV];
296. Memo with resolution by the Secretary General commending various International Organizations for their care of children in countries affected by the war, 22 January 1921, C.21/4/40. [IV];
297. Protection and Welfare of Children, Report and resolution by Mr. Balfour, Representative of the British Empire, relating the work of various International and National Organisations on behalf of children in countries affected by the war, 23 February 1921, C. M.21/41/13.[IV].
298. In this light, Jebb's endeavours towards Gustave Ferrière of the ICRC meant much more than the establishment of bilateral relations. Jebb to "monsieur" (possibly Ferrière), 9 December 1919, ACICR, file entitled "1914-1918. Union internationale de secours aux enfants - Save the Children Fund".
299. "Memorandum concernant l'UISE", Genève, nd (around 1930), AUIPE, p. 10. In the long term, this position was not to be without ambiguity: the technical committees of the League were to use most often state channels of communication and to rely on their implementing their standards and their gathering of information, thus often increasing their activity. In so doing, the League reinforced the importance of national states
300. (Northedge, The League of Nations, pp. 166-168).
301. Member of the ICRC (plausibly Ferrière), to Jebb, 27 October 1919, ACICR, file entitled "1914-1918. Union internationale de secours aux enfants - Save the Children Fund".
302. Dupont Bouchat, "La Belgique capitale internationale du patronage", p. 327.
303. Colin to Crowdy, Report on the 4th Congress of the SCIU, Budapest, 1924, pp. 1-2
304. ALON, 1919-1927, R680, 12/38401/34652;
305. see also Jebb's demands for governments' help to private agencies of relief, and her praise of the efforts of the LON and of the ILO, in BUISE, 5, 20 (30 October 1924), pp. 453-454.
306. Also, the SCIU wished other governments to match private donations as did the British administration (Lord Weardale to Clouzot, 9 June 1920, and Jebb to Hamilton, 23 October 1919, both in ACICR, file entitled "1914-1918. Union internationale de secours aux enfants - Save the Children Fund"). 188 Quoted in Breen, Claiming Rights for Children, p. 4.
307. Quoted in Durand, Histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, p. 134.
308. See also Lord Weardale to Clouzot, 9 June 1920, in ACICR, file entitled "1914-1918, Union internationale de secours aux enfants - Save the Children Fund". The ambiguous views about the extent of state intervention can be understood in the context of what Yearwood considers to be the main debate over the role of the League of Nations during the last days of the war: between those "who looked back to the nineteenth century ideal of free trade" and those who "were moving [toward] a realization that a new, more managed economic system internationally as well as nationally, would characterize much of the twentieth century." Yearwood also found amongst the authors of The Round Table a similar group of "fervent religious believers who hoped for a fundamental transformation of human society, [who] tended to see the League in sacramental terms as the outward and visible sign of that transformation, showing that the interest of humanity would be put in front of those of individual states"
309. (Yearwood, 'Real Securities against New Wars', pp. 105, 93-94).
310. XXe anniversaire, 1940, p. 267.
311. Quoted in SCIU, The Declaration of Geneva and the Child, non dated (after 1927), p. 7.
312. See also de Geer, Message du Comité exécutif, 17 November 1922, document 440, AICRC, UISE Généralités, file entitled "Correspondance 1924-1925": " 'Ceux qui aiment l'avenir doivent sacrifier le présent' affirme, dans une de ses œuvres, Gorki. C'est une très austère doctrine, faite, suivant les âmes, pour inspirer quelque effroi, mais aussi de l'admiration. Cette admiration cessera d'être purement platonique chez ceux qui admettront de sacrifier, à un avenir qu'ils doivent aimer, quelques parcelles du présent."
313. Quoted in UIPE, 50 ans, Revue internationale de l'enfant, 7 (June 1970), p. 34. In August 1920, the second international conference which met in Geneva asked governments to collaborate with agencies such as the SCIU, who could guarantee the "absolutely impartial" management of the relief. The International Congress of Miners adopted a similar stance and its President, Robert Smillie, became a member of the Comité d'honneur of the SCIU.
314. Anna Lindhager, President of the Föreningen Rädda Barnen, "La législation de l'enfance en Suède en rapport avec la Déclaration Générale. Report to the Fourth General Congress" of the SCIU, BUISE, 5, 23 (15 December 1924), p. 541.
315. Mrs. de Bunsen, "Coup d'œil en avant", p. 13. The emphasis on science was also present around the organization of the Fourth General Congress of the SCIU in Vienna, which was of a scientific nature, as opposed to the propagandistic nature of the three first meetings
316. (BUISE, 5, 21 (15 November 1924), p. 472). On the importance, for the IAPCW, of the "scientific collection of data" for "a scientific world policy of child saving"
317. see also "Editorial", Revue internationale de l'enfant, 3, 17 (May 1927), p. 330.
318. Cunningham, "The Rights of the Child", pp. 2-16.
319. Evelyn Sharp, "The Common Home. Some Spiritual Aspects of Child Welfare Work", The New Chronicle, 31 January 1929, p. 101. Sharp dismissed sentimentalists who objected to anger, for she believed that anger could lead to positive results. On the multiplication of studies of children from one international convention to the next, which accompanied the rise of medecinal and psychological understandings of childhood and their replacing "judicial notions of responsibility and discernment"
320. see Dupont Bouchat, "La Belgique capitale internationale du patronage", pp. 323-324, 333: "L'enfant devient une personne, dotée d'une individualite propre, observable, mesurable, classable en fonction de nouveaux criteres d'âge et de comportement, totalement distinct de l'adulte avec lequel il ne peut plus être confondu, qu'il soit delinquant ou simplement "mis en danger" par l'attitude irresponsable de ses parents".
321. Juergen Habermas, "Further Reflections on the Public Sphere", in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere, 1992, p. 451.
322. Arturo Colorado Castellari, The Murals by Jose María Sert in the 'Francisco Vitoria Room' (Council Chamber), New York, United Nations, 1985, p. 12.