Communications Revolutions: A historiographical concept

German History

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 333-374

  Behringer, Wolfgang ^a  

^a SAARLAND UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

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EID: 61449360081     PISSN: 02663554     EISSN: 1477089X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1191/0266355406gh378oa     Document Type: Article

References (219)

1. Gilbert Seldes, 'Communications Revolution', in Edmund Carpenter and Marshall McLuhan (eds), Explorations in Communication: An Anthology (Boston, 1960), pp. 196-99
2. Herbert Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (Toronto, 1962)
3. Herbert Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York, 1964)
4. Harold Adam Innis, Empire and Communications (Toronto, 1950)
5. revised by Mary Q. Innis, with foreword by Marshall McLuhan (Toronto, 1972)
6. Harold Adam Innis, The Bias of Communication (Toronto, 1951)
7. Donald Creighton, Harold Adam Innis: Portrait of a Scholar (Toronto, 1957), pp. 78f. and 96f
8. Robert G. Albion, 'The Communication Revolution', in American Historical Review, 37 (1932), pp. 718-20
9. Robert G. Albion, Forests and Sea Power: The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862 (Cambridge, 1926)
10. Harold A. Innis, 'Transportation in the Canadian Economy', in Mary Q. Innis (ed.), Harold A. Innis: Essays in Canadian Economic History (Toronto, 1956), pp. 220-33, esp. p. 222
11. Robert G. Albion, 'The Communication Revolution, 1760-1933', in Newcomen Society Transactions, vol. 14 (1933), pp. 13-25
12. Richard R. John, 'American Historians and the Concept of the Communications Revolution', in Lisa Bud-Frierman (ed.), Information Acumen: The Understanding and Use of Knowledge in Modern Business (London and New York, 1994), pp. 98-110
13. Alfred Rupert Hall, The Scientific Revolution 1500-1800: The Formation of the Modern Scientific Attitude (London, 1954)
14. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, 1962; 2nd expanded edn., Chicago, 1970)
15. Alfred Rupert Hall, 'On the Historical Singularity of the Scientific Revolution in the Seventeenth Century', in John H. Elliott and Hans G. Königsberger (eds), The Diversity of History: Essays in Honour of Herbert Butterfield (London, 1970), pp. 199-222
16. Albion, 'The Communication Revolution', p. 718
17. M. Innis, Harold A. Innis: Essays in Canadian Economic History
18. H. Innis, Empire and Communications
19. Karl W. Deutsch, review of Harold Innis, Empire and Communications and The Bias of Communication, Journal of Economics and Political Science, 17 (1952), pp. 388-90
20. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (New York, 1963)
21. John, 'American Historians', p. 99
22. Dolores Greenberg, 'Energy, Power, and Perceptions of Social Change in the Early Nineteenth Century', American Historical Review, 95 (1990), pp. 693-714
23. Francis Lieber, 'Posts', in Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 10 (1832), pp. 289-98, esp. p. 289
24. Francis J. Grund, The Americans in their Moral, Social, and Political Relations (Boston, 1837), pp. 120 and 389
25. Daniel J. Czitrom, Media and the American Mind: From Morse to McLuhan (Chapel Hill, 1982)
26. Daniel Bell, 'The Social Framework of the Information Society', in Michael L. Dertouzos and Joel Moses (eds), The ComputerAge: A Twenty-Year View (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 163-211
27. See Richard R. John, Spreading the News The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, Mass., 1975)
28. Robert G. Albion, The Rise of New York Port, 1815-1860 (New York, 1939)
29. see also Robert G. Albion and Walter Phelps Hall, A History of England and the British Empire (2nd edn., Boston, 1946)
30. Robert G. Albion, Sea Lanes in Wartime: The American Experience, 1775-1942 (London, 1943)
31. Robert G. Albion, New England and the Sea (Middletown, Conn., 1972)
32. Robert G. Albion, Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography (4th rev. edn., Newton Abbott, 1973)
33. Robert G. Albion, Makers of Naval Policy, 1798-1847 (Annapolis, 1980)
34. Albion, 'The Communication Revolution', p. 24f
35. Fritz Ohmann, Die Anfänge des Postwesens und die Taxis (Leipzig, 1909), pp. 56-63
36. This conveyance mark dates from 1425: see Aloys Schulte, 'Zur Entstehung des deutschen Postwesens', in supplement to the Allgemeine Zeitung (1900), no. 85, pp. 1-5
37. The Cito mark was standard throughout Europe until the eighteenth century. Only in Britain was it translated into the vernacular, as Haste haste haste post haste: see Philip Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts, London, 1998, pp. 142ff. (with illustrations from 1598 and 1605). It is clear from the fact that this mark retains the gallows that a borrowing from the continent was involved
38. See also J. Crofts, Packhorse, Waggon and Post: Land Carriage and Communications under the Tudors and Stuarts (London and Toronto, 1967), p. 133
39. based on Paul Krüger, ed., Codex Justinianus, vol. 2: Corpus Juris Chilis, Berlin, 1900), pp. 271-73
40. Dorothy Muir, A History of Milan under the Visconti (London, 1924), p. 90
41. The same was true of Filippo Maria Visconti: see Muir, A History of Milan, pp. 133-72
42. See also Erik J. Holmberg, Zur Geschichte des cursus publicus (Uppsala, 1933), pp. 37f. and 54ff
43. Jacobus Menochius, De arbitrariis iudicum quaestionibus et causis libri duo (Venice, 1569), p. 253f. (casus ccxxix)
44. Wolfgang Behringer, Im Zeichen des Merkur: Reichspost und Kommunikationsrevolution in der Frühen Neuzeit (Veröffentlichungen dess Max-Planck-Instituts für Geschichte, 189, Göttingen, 2003), pp. 17, 22, 42 and 65-98
45. Bell, 'The Social Framework', p. 176
46. The key reference work is Martin Dallmeier, Quellen zur Geschichte des europäischen Postwesens 1501-1806, 3 vols. (Kallmünz, 1977/1987
47. Part I, Quellen - Literalur - Einleitung, Kallmünz, 1977
48. Part II, Urkunden - Regesten, Kallmünz, 1977
49. Part III, Register, Kallmünz, 1987)
50. Wolfgang Behringer, 'Fugger and Taxis. Der Anteil Augsburger Kaufleute an der Entstehung des europäischen Kommunikationssystems', in Johannes Burkhardt (ed.), Augsburger Handelshäuser im Wandel des historischen Urteils (Berlin, 1996), pp. 241-48
51. Matthäus Schwarz, 'Das Trachtenbuch des Matthäus Schwarz', in August Fink (ed.), Die Schwarzschen Trachtenbücher (Berlin, 1963), pp. 97-176
52. Victor von Klarwill (ed.), Fugger-Zeitungen: Ungedruckte Briefe an das Haus Fugger aus den Jahren 1568-1605 (Vienna, 1923
53. trans. by Pauline De Chary as The Fugger Newsletters: Being a selection of unpublished letters from the Correspondents of the house of Fugger during the years 1568-1605, London, 1924)
54. Klarwill (ed.), The Fugger Newsletters, second series: Being a further selection from the Fugger papers specially referring to Queen Elizabeth and matters relating to England during the years 1568-1605, transl. by L.S.R. Byrne, London, 1926)
55. Behringer, Im Zeichen des Merkur, pp. 325-30
56. See Émile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society (first publ. 1893, transl. 1933, repr. Glencoe, Ill., 1964)
57. Fürstliches Zentralarchiv Thurn und Taxis, Regensburg [FZATTR], Posturkunden no. 1; regest in Dallmeier (1977), vol. II, p. 3f
58. Oswald Redlich, 'Vier Post-Stundenpässe aus den Jahren 1496-1500', in Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung [MIÖG], 12 (1891), pp. 494-504
59. see also Aloys Schulte, 'Zu dem Stundenpaß von 1500', in MIÖG, 20 (1899), pp. 284-87
60. Gerhard Dohm-van-Rossum, Die Geschichte der Stunde. Uhren und moderne Zeitordmmgen (Munich, 1992), pp. 303-308
61. Ottavio Codogno, Nuovo itinerario delle poste per tutto il mondo (Milan [Girolamo Bordoni], 1608), 'Escusazione' [Foreword]
62. FZATTR, Posturkunden 1 and FZATTR, Posturkunden 2, Dallmeier (1977), vol. 2, pp. 3-5
63. For Britain, see Mark Brayshay, 'Royal Post-Horse Routes in England and Wales: The Evolution of the Network in the Late Sixteenth and early Seventeenth Century', Journal of Historical Geography, 17 (1991), pp. 373-89
64. Mark Brayshay, 'Post-Haste by Post Horse? Communications in Europe, 1400-1600'
65. History Today, 42 (September 1992), pp. 35-41
66. Mark Brayshay and P. Harrison, 'Post Horse Routes, Royal Progresses and Government Communications in the Reign of James I', Journal of Transport History, 18(1997), pp. 116-33
67. For France, see Eugène Vaillé, Histoire générate des posies françaises, 6 vols. (Paris, 1947-1953)
68. Guy Arbellot, 'La grande mutation des routes de France au milieu du XVIIIème siè-cle', in Annates: Economic, Société, Civilisation, 28 (1973), pp. 765-91
69. Guy Arbellot, Autour des mutes de poste. Les premières cartes mutières de la France, XVIIe-XIXe siècle (Paris, 1992)
70. 'Who says what in which channel to whom and with what effect?': see Harold Dwight Lasswell, 'The Structure and Function of Communication in Society', in Lyman Bryson (ed.), The Communication of Ideas (New York, 1948), pp. 37-51
71. Wilbur Schramm, 'Channels and Audiences', in Ithiel de Sola Pool and Wilbur Schramm (eds), Handbook of Communication (Chicago, 1973), pp. 116-40
72. Fernand Braudel, 'Histoire et sciences sociales: la longue durée', in Annates: Economie, Société, Civilisation, 13 (1958), pp. 725-53
73. Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, vol. 1: Vom Feudalismus des Alien Reichs bis zur defensiven Modernisierung der Reformära 1700-1815 (Munich, 1987), p. 121
74. See Walter Christaller, Das Grundgerüst der räumlichen Ordmtng in Europa: Die Systeme der europäischen zentralen Orte (Frankfurt/Main, 1950)
75. Brian J.L. Berry and Allan Pred, Central Place Studies: A Bibliography of Theory and Application (Philadelphia, 1961-1965)
76. See Theo C. Barker and Dorian Gerhold, The Rise and Rise of Road Transport, 1700-1990 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 2-5
77. Michael Giesecke, 'Als die alten Medien neu waren: Medienrevolutionen in der Geschichte', in Rüdiger Weingarten (ed.), Information ohne Kommunikation? (Frankfurt/Main, 1990), pp. 75-79
78. uses the term 'media revolutions', citing Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge and London, 1983)
79. The trail-blazer for this approach was arguably Thomas S. Kuhn, in The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought (Cambridge, Mass., 1957)
80. See also Karl Griewank, Der neuzeitliche Revolutionsbegriff. Entstelnmg und Entwicklung (Frankfurt/Main, 1992). Whereas there can be as many media revolutions as there are media, the term 'communication' will be used here to denote the general concept under which all individual media are subsumed
81. Berthe Delépinne, Histoire de la paste internationale en Belgique (Brussels, 1952
82. Dutch edn: Geschiedenis der internationale Post in Belgie, onder ed Postmeesters der Familie de Tassis, Brussels, 1952)
83. Bernhard Greiff, Tagebuch des Lucas Rem aus den Jahren 1491-1541. Ein Beitrag zur Handehgeschichte der Stadt Augsburg (Augsburg, 1861), p. 18
84. Pierre Nougaret, 'Histoire de la poste en Bourgogne des origines à 1793', in Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles Lettres de Dijon, 113 (1960), pp. 5-173
85. More generally, see Alexandra Dutu, Edgar Hösch and Norbert Oellers (eds), Brief and Briefwechsel in Mittel- und Osteuropa im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (Essen, 1989)
86. and Bernhard Siegert's original study of the literature of what he calls the 'postal era': Bernhard Siegert, Relais: Geschichte der Literature als Epoche der Post, 1751-1913 (Berlin, 1993)
87. Otto Groth, Geschichte der deutschen Zeitungswissenschaft: Probleme und Methoden (Munich, 1948), p. 339f
88. C. John Sommerville, The News Revolution in England: Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information (Oxford, 1996), pp. 1-16
89. See also Joad Raymond, The Invention of the Newspaper: English Newsbooks, 1641-1649 (Oxford, 1996)
90. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York, 1974)
91. Johannes Kleinpaul, Das Nachrichtenwesen der deutschen Fürsten im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert: Ein Beitragzur Geschichte dergeschriebenen Zeitungen (Leipzig, 1930)
92. Johannes Kleinpaul, Die Fuggerzeitungen 1568-1605 (Leipzig, 1921)
93. Felix Stieve, 'Über die ältesten halbjährigen Zeitungen oder Messrelationen und insbesondere über deren Begründer Freiherrn Michael von Aitzing', in Abhandlungen der historischen Klasse der kgl. Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., 16 (1881), pp. 177-265, is still unsurpassed
94. Wolfgang Behringer, 'Köln als Kommunikationszentrum um 1600: Die Anfänge des Kölner Post- und Zeitungswesens im Rahmen der frühneuzeitlichen Medienrevolution', in Georg Mölich and Gerd Schwerhoff (eds), Köln als Kommunikationszentrum. Studien zur frühneuzeitlichen Stadtgeschichte (Cologne, 2000), pp. 183-210
95. The standard work is Klaus Bender, Relationes Historicae: Ein Beslandsverzeichnis der deutschen Messrelationen von 1583 bis 1648 (Berlin and New York, 1994)
96. Engelbert Goller, Jacob Henot, Postmeister von Cöln: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der sogenannten Postreformation um die Wende des 16. Jahrhunderts (Bonn, 1910)
97. FZATTR, Postakten 2467, fol. 47 v
98. Striegel (1603), title page and preface; for facsimile of the title page, see Klaus Bender, 'Die deutschen Meßrelationen von ihren Anfängen bis zum Ende des Dreißigjährigen Krieges: Ein Forschungsvorhaben', in Elger Blühm and Hartwig Gebhardt (eds), Presse and Geschichte II. Neue Beilräge zur historischen Kommunikationsforschung (Munich, 1987), pp. 61-70, here p. 66
99. on the preface, see Stieve, 'Über die al̈testen halbjährigen Zeitungen', p. 231f
100. Noveullanten provided handwritten novellae (i.e., news). They were the precursors of journalists or foreign correspondents. The term was used in the sixteenth century
101. Stadtarchiv Augsburg, Strafamt, Urgichtenakten ['Confessions'] 1599c
102. FZATTR, Bestand HFS 127, letters of 'Gio. Striegel'
103. Joseph Benzing, Die Buchdntcker des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderls im deutschen Sprachgebiet (2nd edn., with corrections and additions, Wiesbaden, 1982), p. 130
104. See the article by Johannes Weber in the present volume
105. Frederick G. Kay, Royal Mail: The Story of the Posts in England from the time of Edward VI to the Present Day (London, 1951), p. 24
106. Henri Gachot, Histoire de la paste aux lettres à Strasbourg (Saverne, 1964)
107. See Relation (1609), no. 21, news from Prague, 23 May. The same report, with the same date, is in Aviso (1609), no. 20 (date of going to press, 31 May 1609)
108. Karl Heinz Kremer, Johannes von den Birghden (1582-1645), Kaiserlicher und königlichschwedischer Poslmeister zu Frankfurt am Main (Bremen, 2005)
109. Wolfgang Behringer, 'Post, Zeitung und Reichsverfassung', in Klaus Beyrer and Martin Dallmeier (eds), Als die Post noch Zeitung machte: Eine Pressegeschichte (Giessen, 1994), pp. 40-47
110. Geometry was the leading ideal in baroque Europe, held to symbolize divine perfection. See Henning Eichberg, 'Geometrie als barocke Verhaltensnorm: Fortifikation und Exercitien', Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung, 4 (1977), pp. 17-50
111. See Folke Dahl, Dutch Corantos 1618-1650: A Bibliography. Illustrated with 334 Facsimile Reproductions of Corantos Printed 1618-1625. An Introductory Essay on 17th Century Stop Press News (The Hague, 1946)
112. Zdeněk Šimeček, 'The First Brussels, Antwerp and Amsterdam Newspapers: Additional Information', Revue beige de philologie et d'histoire, vol. 50 (1972), pp. 1098-115
113. See Folke Dahl, A Bibliography of English Corantos and Periodical Newsbooks 1620-1642 (London, 1952)
114. See Joad Raymond (ed.), Making the News: An Anthology of the Neusbooks of Revolutionary England, 1641-1660, with a foreword by Christopher Hill (Moreton-in-Marsh, 1993)
115. Raymond, The Invention of the Newspaper
116. See Folke Dahl, Fanny Petibon and Marguerite Boulet, Les Debuts de la presse française, vol. 1, Des Origines à 1814 (Paris, 1969)
117. Howard M. Solomon, Public Welfare, Science and Propaganda in Seventeenth Century France: The Innovations of Théophraste Renaudot (Princeton, N.J., 1972)
118. Bob Harris, Politics and the Rise of the Press: Britain and France, 1620-1800 (London, 1996)
119. [Nicolas Sanson and] Melchior Tavernier, Carte géographique des posies qui traversent la France (Paris, 1632)
120. Fritz Schnelbögl, 'Leben und Werk des Nürnberger Kartographen Erhard Etzlaub', Mitteilungen des Vereins für die Geschichte der Stadt Nürnberg, 57(1970), pp. 216-31
121. Bernhard Jahn, Raumkonzepte der Frühen Neuzeit. Zur Konstruktion von Wirklichkeit in Pilgerberichlen, Amerikareisebeschreibungen und Prosaerzählungen (Frankfurt/Main, etc., 1993)
122. Stieve, 'Über die ältesten halbjährigen Zeitungen oder Messrelationen'
123. Josef Egon Schuler (ed.), Der älteste Reiseatlas der Welt [Das Itinemrium orbis christiani], preface by Alois Fauser and raudl Seifert (Stuttgart, 1965)
124. Arbellot, Autour des routes de poste
125. Alan M. MacEachren and Gregory B. Johnson, 'The Evolution, Application and Implication of Strip Format Travel Maps', The Cartographic Journal, 24 (1987), pp. 147-58
126. Franz Raffelsberger, Der Reise-Secretär: Ein geographisches Posthandbuch für Reisende, Kaufleute, Geschäftsmänner und Postbeamte. I. Bd. mit 2 in Kupfer gestochenen illuminierten Postkarten von Deutschland und Europa (Vienna, 1829/1830)
127. See 'Post-Ordnung', in Johann Heinrich Zedler (ed.), Großes vollständiges Universal-Lexicon aller Wissenschaften und Künste (in 64 vols and 4 supplement vols., Halle and Leipzig, 1732-1754), vol. 28 (1741), cols. 1812-1827
128. Joseph Rübsam, 'Die Reichspostordnung aus dem Jahre 1698', Archiv für Post und Telegraphie, 29 (1901), pp. 653-62
129. See Clive Hart, The Prehistory of Flight (Berkeley, 1985), p. 136f.
130. Wolfgang Behringer and Constance Ott-Koptschalijski, Der Tmum vom Fliegen. Zwischen Mythos and Technik (Frankfurt/Main, 1991), p. 269ff
131. Giuseppe Miselli, Il Burattino veridico o 'vera instruzione Generate per chi viaggia con la Descrizione dell'Europa [...] e con la Tavola delle Poste nelle vie più regolate, che al presente si trovano [...] dedicata all'illustriss. Sig. Marchese Filippo Nerli Generate delle Poste delta Santità di N. Sig. Papa Innozenzio XI (Rome, 1682)
132. See Jörg Gail, Raißbüchlin (Augsburg, 1563), Preface
133. Wolfgang Behringer, 'Südtirol à la carte: Reisehilfsmittel für Reisende Zwischen Deutschland und Italien', in Stefano Consolati (ed.), Der Weg in den Süden: Reisen durch Tirol von Dürer bis Heine (Bozen, 1998), pp. 27-45
134. Wolfgang Behringer, 'Der Fahrplan der Welt: Anmerkungen zu den Anfängen der europäischen Verkehrsrevolution', in Hellmut Trischler and Hans-Liudger Dienel (eds), Geschichte der Zukunft des Verkehrs: Verkehrskonzepte von der Frühen Neuzeit bis zum 21. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt/Main and New York, 1997), pp. 40-57
135. See also Wolfgang Behringer, 'Reisen als Aspekt einer Kommunikationsgeschichte der Frühen Neuzeit', in Michael Maurer (ed.), Neue Impulse der Reiseforschumg (Berlin, 1999), pp. 65-95
136. See August von Goethe, Auf einer Reise nach Süden. Tagebuch 1830. Erstdruck nach den Handschriften, ed. Andreas Bayer and Gabriele Radecke (Munich and Vienna, 1999), p. 17
137. On the history of the consciousness of time in Europe, see Rudolf Wendorff, Zeit und Kultur. Geschichte des Zeitbewußtseins in Europa (Opladen, 1980)
138. Pitirim A. Sorokin and Robert K. Merton, 'Social Time: A Methodological and Functional Analysis', American Journal of Sociology, 42 (1937), pp. 615-29
139. See Donald G. Janelle, 'Central Place Development in aTime-Space Framework', Professional Geographer, 20 (1968), pp. 5-10, esp. p. 6, fig. 1. Using the formula TT1 - TT2/Y2 - Y1, where TT = travel time and Y = year (or date), Janelle calculates that there was an increase in speed of 29.4 minutes per year for the period 1776-1966
140. See also Donald G. Janelle, 'Spatial Reorganization: A Model and a Concept', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 59 (1969), pp. 348-64
141. Stadtarchiv Köln, Bestand Handel, no. 571
142. For 1653, see Robert Staudenraus, 'Das Post- und Botenwesen in der ehemaligen Markgrafschaft Brandenburg-Ansbach', Archiv für Poslgeschichte in Bayern, 13 (1937), pp. 24-37, 95-103
143. For 1695, see Robert Staudenraus, 'Alte Posthaltereien des Postkurses Nürnberg-Hamburg auf dem Weg durch Franken und Thüringen', Archiv für Poslgeschichte in Bayern, 19 (1943), pp. 267-288, esp. p. 281
144. For inspection report for 1715, see Georg Rennert, 'Die Poststation Duderstadt und Posten-Visitierung zwischen Hamburg und Kassel im April 1715', Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung, 56 (1932), pp. 631-32
145. For postal time-sheets for 1804, see FZATTR, PA 1113
146. Express post was introduced in Prussia in 1821, in Austria in 1823, in Saxony in 1824 and in Bavaria in 1826: see Rudolf Wagenbrenner, 'Die Einführung der Eilpostwagen in Bayern. Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Entwicklungsgesetze der Post', Archiv für Postgeschichte in Bayern, 2 (1926), pp. 4-20
147. See also Klaus Beyrer, 'Eilwagen und Schnellpost', in Klaus Beyrer (ed.), Zeit der Postkutschen: Drei Jahrhunderte Reisen 1600-1900 (Karlsruhe, 1992), pp. 189-97
148. Friedrich H. Hofmann, 'Das kursächsische Postwesen', in Eberhard Stimmel (ed.), Lexikon Kursächsische Postmeilensäulen (Berlin, 1989), pp. 49-78, esp. p. 77
149. See Eviatar Zerubavel, 'The Standardization of Time: A Sociohistorical Perspective', American Journal of Sociology, 88 (1982), pp. 1-23
150. Dohrn-van-Rossum, Die Geschichte der Stunde, pp. 296-321 (for the standard clock, see p. 316f.)
151. See Walter Ehrenfried, 'Kursuhren' (illustrated), in Beyrer, Zeit der Postkutschen, pp. 200-201
152. See Manuel Castells, The Information Age, vol. 1: The Rise of the Network Society
153. Chris Shipley and Matthew Fish, How the World Wide Web Works (Emeryville, Cal., 1996)
154. Peter J. Denning, 'The Internet after Thirty Years', in Dorothy E. Denning and Peter J. Denning (eds), Internet Besieged: Countering Cyberspace Scofflaws (New York, 1998), pp. 15-28
155. Stephen Segaller, Nerds: A Brief History of the Internet (New York, 1998)
156. James O. Wheeler, Yuko Aoyama and Barney Warf, 'City Space, Industrial Space, and Cyberspace', in Wheeler, Aoyama and Warf, Cities in the Telecommunications Age, pp. 3-17, esp. p. 3
157. Martin Dodge and Narushige Shiode, 'Where on Earth is the Internet? An Empirical Investigation of the Geography of Internet Real Estate', in Wheeler, Aoyama and Warf, Cities in the Telecommunications Age, pp. 42-53, esp. pp. 43ff
158. See Frances Cairncross, The Death of Distance: How the Communications Revolution will Change our Lives (London, 1997), chapter entitled 'The Roots of Revolution': 'It is easy to forget how recently the communications revolution began' (p. 4)
159. See Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Geschichte der Eisenbahnreise. Zur Industrialisierung von Raum und Zeit im 19. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1977)
160. H.D. Schonberger, in Transportation to the Seaboard: The 'Communication Revolution' and American Foreign Policy, 1860-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971), also argues for the period around 1850 as the crucial turning-point, with the introduction of telegraphy and the increased speed of marine transport playing a central role. Albion, 'The Communication Revolution', had argued the case for the 1760s on similar grounds
161. See Kuhn, The Slnicture of Scientific Revolutions
162. Bertita L. Compton, 'Scientific Communication', in de Sola Pool and Schramm, Handbook of Communication, pp. 755-78
163. Marie Boas Hall, 'Oldenburg and the Art of Scientific Communication', British Journal for the History of Science, 2 (1965), pp. 277-90
164. William Eamon, 'From the Secrets of Nature to Public Knowledge', in David C. Lindberg and Robert S. Westman (eds), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 333-66
165. Henry Oldenburg, The Correspondence of Henry Oldenburg, vol. 1 (1641-1662), ed. and transl. by Rupert Hall and Marie Boas Hall, with the collaboration of Eberhard Reichmann (Madison and Milwaukee, 1965), p. 481
166. On the social aspects of networking, see Iordan Avramov, 'An Apprenticeship in Scientific Communication: The Early Correspondence of Henry Oldenburg (1656-63)', in Notes Rec. Royal Society, 53 (1999), pp. 187-201
167. See Hans Erich Bödecker, 'Lessings Briefwechsel', in Hans Erich Bödecker and Ulrich Herrmann (eds), Über den Prozeß der Aufklärung in Deutschland im 18. Jahrhundert. Personen, Institutional und Medien (Göttingen, 1987), p. 137f
168. On measurement, see Thomas S. Kuhn, 'The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science', Isis, 52 (1961), pp. 161-90
169. On space and time, see Pitirim A. Sorokin, Sociocultural Causality, Space, Time: A Study of Referential Principles of Sociology and Social Science (Durham, N.C., 1943), pp. 147ff.
170. Max Jammer, Concepts of Space (Cambridge, Mass., 1954)
171. Ricardo J. Quinones, The Renaissance Discovery of Time (Cambridge, Mass., 1972)
172. Gerald J. Whitrow, Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day (Oxford and New York, 1988)
173. Dohrn-van-Rossum, Die Geschichte der Stunde. On insular spatial structure, see Jahn, Raumkonzepte der Fruhen Neuzeit
174. See Sorokin, ocidtural Causality, Space, Time 147ff.
175. Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Cambridge, 1984), p. 110
176. Eg, Alexandre Koyré, From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe (Baltimore, 1957)
177. Hans Blumenberg, Die Genesis der kopernikanischen Welt, 3 vols. (Frankfurt/Main, 1981)
178. See Erwin Panofsky, 'Die Perspektive als symbolische Form', Vorträge der Bibliothek Warburg, 4 (1924/25), pp. 258-330
179. Ernst H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion (Oxford, 1959)
180. See Kurt Krause, Die Anfänge des geographischen Unterrichts im 16. Jahrhundert. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Methodik des erdkundlichen Unterrichts (Gotha, 1929)
181. Ronald Abler, John S. Adams and Peter Gould, Spatial Organization: The Geographer's View of the World (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971)
182. Karl-Heinz Meine, Die Ulmer Geographie des Ptolemäus von 1482: Zttr 500. Wiederkehr der ersten Atlasdrucklegung nördlich derAlpen (Weißenhorn, 1982)
183. Janelle, 'Spatial Reorganization'
184. Giddens, The Constitution of Society, p. 114
185. On Giddens's distinctive position within 'social theory' on this question, see John Urry, 'Sociology of Time and Space', in Brian S. Turner (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Social Theory (Oxford, 1996), pp. 369-95, esp. pp. 381-84
186. See Sorokin, Sociocultural Causality, Space, Time, pp. 158ff.
187. Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis (Cambridge, 1979), p. 204f.
188. Urry, 'Sociology of Time and Space', p. 381
189. Michael Giesecke, Der Buchdruck in der frühen Neuzeit: Eine historische Fallstudie über die Durchsetzung neuer Informations- und Kommunikationstectmologien (Frankfurt/Main, 1991), p. 21 f
190. The distinction is indirectly conceded by Giesecke when, after nearly 400 pages, he suddenly invokes the 'commerce network as a medium of typographic communication' in order to explain why printing had such an impact. The relevant chapter, however, is vague and has recourse to overblown terms such as 'market-economy networks' and 'commercial infrastructure': Giesecke, Der Buchdruck in der frühen Neuzeit, pp. 393-405
191. See Castells, The Information Age, vol. 1: The Rise of the Network Society, pp. 376-428, and the definition given at p. 412: 'Our society is constructed around flows: flows of capital, flows of information, flows of technology, flows of organizational interaction, flows of images, sounds, and symbols. Flows are not just one element of the social organization: they are the expression of processes dominating our economic, political, and symbolic life ... The space of flows is the material organization of time-sharing social practices that work through flows. By flows I understand purposeful, repetitive, programmable sequences of exchange and interaction between physically disjoined positions, held by social actors in the economic, political, and symbolic structures of society.' Although Castells is thinking particularly of the internet, his account is also a good description of the early modern postal network (except for the reference to 'sounds')
192. See, for example, Castells, 'Grassrooting the Space of Flows', in James O. Wheeler, Yuko Aoyama and Barney Warf (eds), Cities in the Telecommunications Age: The Fracturing of Geography (New York, 2000), pp. 18-30, esp. p. 18, which takes issue with Cairncross, The Death of Distance
193. See Garth S. Jowett, 'Communication in History: An Initial Theoretical Approach', Canadian Journal of Information Science, 1 (1976), pp. 5-13
194. Harold Adam Innis, 'Minerva's Owl', in Innis, The Bias of Communication, p. 3
195. Bell, 'The Social Framework of the Information Society', p. 169
196. Bernard Bailyn and John B. Hench (eds), The Press and the American Revolution (New York, 1980)
197. See the article by Andreas Gestrich in the present volume
198. See Castells, 'Grassrooting the Space of Flows'
199. Henry Peachum, The World is Ruled and Governed by Opinion (with an engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar, London, 1641)
200. Thus optical telegraphy began to be used for the transmission of news after about 1800, and electric telegraphy after 1844, while from the 1830s the railways began to be used for personal travel. See Klaus Beyrer (ed.), So weit das Auge reicht. Die Geschichte der optischen Telegraphie. Eine Publikation des Museums Jur Post und Kommunikation Frankfurt am Main (Karlsruhe, 1995)
201. Michael North (ed.), Kommunikationsrevolutionen im 16. und 19. Jahrhundert (Cologne, 1995)
202. This list tallies with the features 'precise, punctual, calculable, standard, bureaucratic, rigid, invariant, finely coordinated, and routine' listed by Zerubavel as characteristic of the rationalism of western culture: see Eviatar Zerubavel, Hidden Rhythms: Schedules and Calendars in Social Life (Chicago, 1981), p. xvi
203. See, for example, Christian Friedrich Goldschadt, Sammlung nöthiger Nachrichten oder deutliche Beschreibung derer Marktflecken, Flecken, Stifter, Klöster, Schlösser, Ämter und dergleichen in Deutschland, mit einer Vorrede von Gottlieb Stolle (Jena, 1735)
204. Cf Behringer, 'Der Fahrplan der Welt'
205. Travel without such signage carried serious risks. The Benedictine monk Plazidus Scharl (1731-1814), on a journey through Middle Franconia in 1757, was given false directions by a peasant who disliked monks. 'For a long time we wandered in the forest, lost track of one path after another, came up against barriers and fences, found ourselves on mossy ground and on rocky outcrops, and were often hard put to it to battle our way through.' See Hildebrand Dussler (ed.), Reisen und Reisende in Bayerisch Schwaben, vol. 1 (Weißenhorn, 1968), p. 229
206. For a critique of this thesis, see Michael North, Kommunikation, Handel, Geld und Banken in der Frühen Neuzeit [= Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte, vol. 59] (Munich, 2000), p. 51
207. Werner Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus. Historisch-systematlsche Darstellung des gesamteuropäischen Wirtschaftslebens von seinenAnfängen bis zur Gegenwart, 3 vols. (Munich and Leipzig, 1916-1927; new edn., Munich, 1987), vol. II/l, p. 372
208. Johann Jacob Moser, 'Postwesen', in Teutsches Staats-Recht, 50 parts in 25 vols. (Leipzig, 1737-1775), Fünfter Teil, Worinnen sonderlich die Materie von dem Postwesen, so dann von denen Rechten and Freyheiten, welche der Kayser denen Reichs-Ständen und deren Unmittelbaren in Ansehung ihrer Lande und Unterthanen mitzuteilen befugt, nicht weniger denen Pflichten, dazu er wegen eben solcher Unterthanen verbunden ist [...] enthalten seynd (Leipzig, 1742), pp. 1-272; (2nd edn., 1752), p. 262
209. Eckart G. Franz, 'Franz (Francis) Joseph Grund', in Neue Deutsche Biographie, 7 (1966), pp. 218f.
210. F.B. Freidel, Francis Lieber, 19th Century Radical (Baton Rouge, 1947)
211. See Behringer, 'Reisen als Aspekt einer Kommunikationsgeschichte der Frühen Neuzeit'
212. 'The Internet is largely an invisible communications phenomenon. It is used by millions of people every day, yet there is little physical evidence of its existence' (Dodge and Shiode, 'Where on Earth is the Internet?, p. 42)
213. The very terms 'invention', 'instruments of modernity' and the like can be treacherous: see Engelhard Weigl, Instrumente der Neuzeit. Die Entdeckung der modernen Wirklichkeit (Stuttgart, 1990)
214. Jürgen Habermas, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit. Untersuchungen zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Neuwied and Berlin, 1962)
215. Habermas's work, only translated into English in 1989, has been enthusiastically received in recent American publications. Thompson, at Cambridge, has maintained that 'three traditions' have helped in the construction of a 'social theory of the media'. He argues that the Frankfurt School, predating both the tradition leading from Innis and McLuhan to Meyrowitz and the hermeneutic tradition of Gadamer and Ricoeur, ranks as the initial 'resource', although (in his view) none of the Frankfurt School theories, apart from those of Habermas, remains of practical relevance today. See John B. Thompson, 'Social Theory and the Media', in David Crowley and David Mitchell (eds), Communication Theory Today (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 27-49, esp. pp. 28ff
216. See Roy Porter, 'The Scientific Revolution: A Spoke in the Wheel?', in Roy Porter and Mikulas Teich (eds), Revolution in History (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 290-316
217. David C. Lindberg, 'Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Bacon to Butterfield', in Lindberg and Westman, Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution, pp. 1-26
218. H. Floris Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994)
219. Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago, 1996)