Mere exposure and racial prejudice: Exposure to other-race faces increases liking for strangers of that race

Social Cognition

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 259-275

  Zebrowitz, Leslie A ^a   White, Benjamin ^a   Wieneke, Kristin ^a  

^a BRANDEIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61449222825     PISSN: 0278016X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1521/soco.2008.26.3.259     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Oxford, England: Addison-Wesley, 1954.
2. Ball, P.M., & Cantor, G.N. (1974). White boys' ratings of pictures of whites and blacks as related to amount of familiarization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 39, 883-890.
3. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
4. Blair, I., V., Judd, C. M., & Chapleau, K.M. (2004). The influence of Afrocentric facial features in criminal sentencing. Psychological Science, 15, 674-679.
5. Blair, I., Judd, C.M., Sadler, M.S., & Jenkins, C. (2002). The role of afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 5-25.
6. Bornstein, R.F. (1989). Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research, 1968-1987. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 265-289.
7. Bornstein, R.F. (1993). Mere exposure effects with outgroup stimuli. In D.M. Mackie and D.L. Hamilton (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 195-211). San Diego: Academic Press.
8. Bornstein, R.F., & D'Agostino, P. R. (1992). Stimulus recognition and the mere exposure effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 545-552.
9. Bornstein, R. F., Kale, A. R., & Cornell, K. R. (1990). Boredom as a limiting condition on the mere exposure effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 791-800.
10. Bornstein, R.F., Leone, D.R., & Galley, D.J. (1987). The generalizibility of subliminal mere exposure effects: Influence of stimuli perceived without awareness on social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1070-1079.
11. Brainard, D.H. (1997). The psychophysics tool-box. Spatial Vision, 10, 433-436.
12. Brewer, M., Feinstein, A., & Harasty, S. (1999). Dual processes in the cognitive representation of persons and social categories. In S. Chaiken and Y. Trope (Eds.) Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 255-270). New York: Guilford Press.
13. Burger, J.M., Soroka, S., Gonzago, K., Murphy, E., and Somervell, E. (2001). The effect of fleeting attraction on compliance to requests. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1578-1586.
14. Cantor, G. N. (1972). Effects of familiarization on children's ratings of pictures of whites and blacks. Child Development, 43, 1219-1229.
15. DeBruine, L. (2002). Facial resemblance enhances trust. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 269, 1307-1312.
16. Eberhardt, J. L., Davies, P. G., & Purdie-Vaughns, V. J. (2006). Looking death-worthy: Perceived stereotypicality of black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychological Science, 17, 383-386.
17. Fiske, S.T., Lin, M., & Neuberg, S.L. (1999). The continuum model: Ten years later. In S. Chaiken and Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 231-254). New York: Guilford Press.
18. Fitzgerald, D. A., Angstadt, M., Jelsone, L. M., Nathan, P. J., & Phan, K. L. (2006). Beyond threat: Amygdala reactivity across multiple expressions of facial affect. Neuroimage, 30, 1441-1448.
19. Gordon, P.C., & Holyoak, K.J. (1983). Implicit learning and generalization of the "mere exposure" effect, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 492-500.
20. Hamann, S., & Mao, H. (2002). Positive and negative emotional verbal stimuli elicit activity in the left amygdala. Neuroreport, 13, 15-19.
21. Hamm, N.H., Baum, M.R., & Nikels, K.W. (1975). Effects of race and exposure on judgments of interpersonal favorability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 14-24.
22. Harmon-Jones, E., & Allen, J.J.B. (2001). The role of affect in the mere exposure effect: Evidence from psychophysiological and individual differences approaches. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 889-898.
23. Hart, A.J., Whalen, P.J., Shin, L.M., McInerney, S.C., Fischer, H., & Rauch, S.L. (2000). Differential response in the human amygdala to racial outgroup vs. ingroup face stimuli. Neuroreport, 11, 2351-2355.
24. Hill, T., Lewicki, P., Czyzewska, M., & Schuller, G. (1990). The role of learned inferential encoding rules in the perception of faces: Effects of nonconscious self-perpetuation of a bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 350-371.
25. Jarvis, B.G. (2004). Medialab (Version 2004. 3.24) [Computer software]. New York: Empirisoft Corporation.
26. Kunst-Wilson, W. R., & Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized. Science, 207, 557-558.
27. Langlois, J. H., & Roggman, L.A. (1990). Attractive faces are only average. Psychological Science, 1, 115-121.
28. LeDoux, J. (1998). Fear and the brain: Where have we been, and where are we going? Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1229-1238.
29. Lee, A. Y. (2001). The mere exposure effect: An uncertainty reduction explanation revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1255-1266.
30. Lewicki, P. (1985). Nonconscious biasing effects of single instances on subsequent judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 563-574.
31. Livingston, R.W., & Brewer, M.B. (2002). What are we really priming? Cue-based versus category-based processing of facial stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 5-18.
32. Malpass, R.S., & Kravitz, J. (1969). Recognition for faces of own and other race. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13, 330-334.
33. MatLab 6.1 (2001). Natick, MA: Math Works, Inc.
34. Martinez, A. M., & Benavente, R. (1998). The AR Face Database: CVC Technical Report #24.
35. Monahan, J. L., Murphy, S.T., & Zajonc, R.B. (2000). Subliminal mere exposure: Specific, general, and diffuse effects. Psychological Science, 11, 462-466.
36. Perlman, D., & Oskamp, S. (1971). The effects of picture content and exposure frequency on evaluations of Negroes and whites. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 503-514.
37. Peskin, M., & Newell, F. N. (2004). Familiarity breeds attraction: Effects of exposure on the attractiveness of typical and distinctive faces. Perception, 33, 147-157.
38. Pettigrew, T.F., & Tropp, L.R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751-783.
39. Phelps, E.A., O'Connor, K.J., Cunningham, W.A., Funayama, E.S., Gatenby, J.C., Gore, J.C., & Banaji, M.R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729-738.
40. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 36, 717-731.
41. Reber, R., Winkielman, P., & Schwarz, N. (1998). Effects of perceptual fluency on affective judgments. Psychilogical Science, 29, 45-48.
42. Rhodes, G., Halberstadt, J., & Brajkovich G. (2001). Generalization of mere exposure effects to averaged composite faces. Social Cognition, 19, 57-70.
43. Rhodes, G., Halberstadt, J., Jeffery, L., & Palermo, R. (2005). The attractiveness of average faces is not a generalized mere exposure effect. Social Cognition, 23, 205-217.
44. Rubenstein, A.J., Kalkanis, L., & Langlois, J.H. (1999). Infant preferences for attractive faces: A cognitive explanation. Developmental Psychology, 15, 848-855.
45. Sander, K., & Scheich, H. (2005). Left auditory cortex and amygdala, but right insula dominance for human laughing and crying. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 1519-1531.
46. Seamon, J.G., Williams, P.C., Crowley, M.J.U., Kim, I.J., Langer, S.A., Orne, P.J., & Wishengrad, D.L. (1995). The mere exposure effect is based on implicit memory: Effects of stimulus type, encoding conditions, and number of exposures on recognition and affect judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 711-721.
47. Smith, P. K., Dijksterhuis, A., & Chaiken, S., (2007). Subliminal exposure to faces and racial attitudes: Exposure to whites makes whites like blacks less. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.006.
48. Winkielman, P., Halberstadt, J., Fazendeiro, T., & Catty, S. (2006). Prototypes are attractive because they are easy on the mind. Psychological Science, 17, 799-806.
49. Winston, J. S., O'Doherty, J., Kilner, J. M., Perrett, D. I., & Dolan, R. J. (2007). Brain systems for assessing facial attractiveness. Neuropsychologia, 45, 195-206.
50. Zajonc, R. B.(1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, Monograph Supplement, No. 2, part 2.
51. th edition (Vol. 1, pp. 591-632). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
52. Zajonc, R.B. (2001). Mere exposure: A gateway top the subliminal. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 224-228.
53. Zajonc, R. B., Markus, H., & Wilson, W. R. (1974). Exposure effects and associative learning. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 248-263.
54. Zebrowitz, L. A. (1997). Reading faces: Window to the soul? Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
55. Zebrowitz, L.A. (2001, November). There's an elephant in the labs where racial stereotypes are studied. Paper presented at the Conference for A "New Look" At Race, Stanford University.
56. Zebrowitz, L.A., Bronstad, P.M., & Lee, H.K. (2007). The contribution of face familiarity to ingroup favoritism and stereotyping. Social Cognition, 25, 306-338.
57. Zebrowitz, L. A., & Collins, M. A. (1997) Accurate social perception at zero acquaintance: The affordances of a Gibsonian approach. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 204-223.
58. Zebrowitz, L.A., & Rhodes, G. (2002). Nature let a hundred flowers bloom: The multiple ways and wherefores of attractiveness. In G. Rhodes and L.A. Zebrowitz (Eds.), Facial attractiveness: Evolutionary, cognitive, and social perspectives. Westport, CT: Ablex.