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Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 221-252

Monuments and the politics of memory: Commemorating Kurt Eisner and the Bavarian revolutions of 1918-1919 in Postwar Munich

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EID: 61449088089     PISSN: 00089389     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0008938900014035     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (9)

References (112)
  • 1
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    • Die NS-Prozesse - Versuch einer juristischen Vergangenheitsbewä ltigung
    • Indeed, as some observers have pointed out, this is implicit in the very composition of the term Vergangenheitsbewältigung itself. Its meaning, roughly "coming to terms with the past," has reduced an expansive term - the past - to but twelve years of German history. See Bernd Hey, "Die NS-Prozesse - Versuch einer juristischen Vergangenheitsbewältigung," Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht 6 (1981): 331. Most recent studies have been conservative critiques of the concept.
    • (1981) Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht , vol.6 , pp. 331
    • Hey, B.1
  • 4
    • 84868765350 scopus 로고
    • Vergangenheitsbewältigung' in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland
    • Eckhard Jesse, "'Vergangenheitsbewältigung' in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland," Der Staat 26, no. 4 (1987): 539-65.
    • (1987) Der Staat , vol.26 , Issue.4 , pp. 539-565
    • Jesse, E.1
  • 7
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    • Berlin
    • Conservatives have taken up the call for the second Vergangenheitsbewältigung. See Karlheinz Weissmann, Rückruf in die Geschichte (Berlin, 1992).
    • (1992) Rückruf in Die Geschichte
    • Weissmann, K.1
  • 9
    • 77957322488 scopus 로고
    • Once More an Inability to Mourn? Reflections on the Left Melancholy of Our Time
    • Fall
    • Martin Jay's "Once More an Inability to Mourn? Reflections on the Left Melancholy of Our Time," German Politics and Society 27 (Fall 1992), offers a view from a different perspective.
    • (1992) German Politics and Society , vol.27
    • Jay, M.1
  • 12
    • 0002925336 scopus 로고
    • Die Last der doppelten Vergangenheit
    • 13 May
    • Jürgen Habermas, "Die Last der doppelten Vergangenheit," Die Zeit, 13 May 1994, p. 54.
    • (1994) Die Zeit , pp. 54
    • Habermas, J.1
  • 14
    • 67649720324 scopus 로고
    • Historikerstreit auf bayerisch
    • 7 November
    • Christian Schneider, "Historikerstreit auf bayerisch," Süddeutsche Zeitung (SZ). 6/7 November 1993, p. 3.
    • (1993) Süddeutsche Zeitung (SZ) , vol.6 , pp. 3
    • Schneider, C.1
  • 15
    • 0004170841 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Halbwachs further notes, "we can understand how we recapture the past only by understanding how it is .. . preserved in our physical surroundings." Maurice Halbwachs, The Collective Memory (New York, 1980), 140. Since Pierre Nora's work on the subject, other scholars have focused on the relationship between monuments, memory, and identity.
    • (1980) The Collective Memory , pp. 140
    • Halbwachs, M.1
  • 16
    • 84967669104 scopus 로고
    • Between Memory and History: Les lieux de mémoire
    • Spring
    • See, among many others, Pierre Nora, "Between Memory and History: Les lieux de mémoire," Representations (Spring, 1989): 7-25;
    • (1989) Representations , pp. 7-25
    • Nora, P.1
  • 20
    • 84941397503 scopus 로고
    • Nationalidee und Nationaldenkmal in Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert
    • Thomas Nipperdey, "Nationalidee und Nationaldenkmal in Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert," Historische Zeitschrift 3 (1968): 529-85.
    • (1968) Historische Zeitschrift , vol.3 , pp. 529-585
    • Nipperdey, T.1
  • 21
    • 0003602257 scopus 로고
    • New Brunswick
    • Halbwachs's assertion that memory is fundamentally rooted and preserved in social relationships - indeed, that it is condemned to oblivion without them - raises questions as to its dissemination over time. The apparent difficulty in accounting for the passing on of memory once its original bearers, those who personally experienced events, have themselves passed on, however, is addressed by pointing to the existence of "communities of memory," groups who empathetically identify with, and assign meaning to, events of the past through various commemorative ceremonies and gestures. Iwona Irwin-Zarecka, Frames of Remembrance: The Dynamics of Collective Memory (New Brunswick, 1994), 47-49;
    • (1994) Frames of Remembrance: The Dynamics of Collective Memory , pp. 47-49
    • Irwin-Zarecka, I.1
  • 23
    • 79958506786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • James Young refers to a "biographical" approach to monuments, Young, The Texture of Memory, ix.
    • The Texture of Memory , vol.9
    • Young1
  • 24
    • 77957067965 scopus 로고
    • Berlin
    • The Bavarian revolutions sparked the most historical studies during the 1960s and 1970s and have tailed off as of late. The subject acquired the most interest among East German historians who, like Hans Beyer, aimed to demonstrate the existence of mass working-class support for the second Räterepublik, Hans Beyer, Von der November Revolution zur Räterepublik in München (Berlin, 1957).
    • (1957) Von der November Revolution Zur Räterepublik in München
    • Beyer, H.1
  • 26
    • 79958544669 scopus 로고
    • London
    • See also Richard Grunberger, Red Rising in Bavaria (London, 1973). Recent attention toward Kurt Eisner's role in the period has been particularly promoted by the work of his granddaughter, the journalist Freya Eisner, who has been motivated by the desire to overturn left-wing and right-wing stereotypes about Eisner's political career.
    • (1973) Red Rising in Bavaria
    • Grunberger, R.1
  • 27
    • 84868741425 scopus 로고
    • Kurt Eisners Ort in der sozialistischen Bewegung
    • July
    • See, most recently, Freya Eisner, "Kurt Eisners Ort in der sozialistischen Bewegung," Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte (July, 1995): 407-37.
    • (1995) Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte , pp. 407-437
    • Eisner, F.1
  • 34
    • 84868753349 scopus 로고
    • Bauausschuss, 2 February
    • The oft-cited line read by Eisner was: "Fortan ist Bayern ein Freistaat" (From this moment on, Bavaria is a republic). As will be seen, the use of the term Freistaat would be highly controversial in postwar Munich. Rathaus München/Direktorium, Stenographischer Sitzungsdienst (RMDSS)/RP, Bauausschuss, 2 February 1989, 27-34.
    • (1989) Stenographischer Sitzungsdienst (RMDSS)/RP , pp. 27-34
    • München, R.1    Direktorium2
  • 36
    • 84868798624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilhelm, Dichter, Denker, Fememörder, 62
    • It has often been speculated that Arco-Valley killed Eisner for complex psychological reasons due to his own anti-Semitic self-hatred. Bom of a Jewish mother (from the Cologne Oppenheimer banking family), Arco-Valley had been rejected for membership in the Thule-Gesellschaft because of his "impure" background - a fact that, according to many, led him to assassinate Eisner as proof of his racial trustworthiness. Wilhelm, Dichter, Denker, Fememörder, 62;
  • 38
    • 79958596370 scopus 로고
    • Die Zeit yon 1918 bis 1933
    • ed. Max Spindler, Munich
    • Albert Schwarz, "Die Zeit yon 1918 bis 1933," in Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, ed. Max Spindler, vol. 4 (Munich, 1974), 428.
    • (1974) Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte , vol.4 , pp. 428
    • Schwarz, A.1
  • 40
    • 84868837127 scopus 로고
    • Die kurze Herrschaft der Räte in München
    • 7 April
    • The total death figures vary. Hans-Günther Richardi has claimed that between 30 April and 8 May 1919, some 557 people were killed. "Die kurze Herrschaft der Räte in München," SZ, 7 April 1994, p. 35.
    • (1994) SZ , pp. 35
    • Richardi, H.1
  • 43
    • 84868714336 scopus 로고
    • Auf dera Weg zum 'Hilter-Putsch': Gegenrevolutionäres Milieu und früher Nationalsozialismus in München
    • Stadtmuseum München, Munich
    • Wilfried Rudloff, "Auf dera Weg zum 'Hilter-Putsch': Gegenrevolutionäres Milieu und früher Nationalsozialismus in München," in Stadtmuseum München, München - "Hauptstadt der Bewegung" (Munich, 1993), 36.
    • (1993) München - Hauptstadt der Bewegung , pp. 36
    • Rudloff, W.1
  • 44
    • 84868789978 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dietrich Eckart, Hans Frank, Rudolf Hess, and Alfred Rosenberg, and Freikorps members, such as Franz Ritter von Epp and Ernst Röhm
    • Among the future Nazis who opposed the Eisner regime and attempted to unseat the Räterepublik were former members of the Thule-Gesellschaft such as Dietrich Eckart, Hans Frank, Rudolf Hess, and Alfred Rosenberg, and Freikorps members, such as Franz Ritter von Epp and Ernst Röhm.
  • 45
    • 84868822981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • München, Hauptstadt der Bewegung
    • In national Reichstag elections, Munich support for the NSDAP began higher than the national total but later sank below it. Thus, in May 1924, 28.5 percent of all Münchner voted for the Völkischer Block (the successor party to the temporarily banned NSDAP), while only 6.5 percent of all Germans voted for it nationally; in May, 1928, the Nazis gained 2.6 percent of the total national vote, but 10.7 percent of the Munich vote; in September the figures were 18.3 percent nationally and 21.8 percent in the city; by July 1932, however, the figures were 37.3 percent nationally and 28.9 percent locally, and by November 1932, the figures were 33.1 percent and 24.9 percent respectively. See Clemens Vollnhals, "Der Aufstieg der NSDAP in München, 1925 bis 1933: Förderer und Gegner," in: München - "Hauptstadt der Bewegung" 157-65;
    • Der Aufstieg der NSDAP in München, 1925 Bis 1933: Förderer und Gegner , pp. 157-165
    • Vollnhals, C.1
  • 47
    • 84868849699 scopus 로고
    • Kommunalpolitik in München zwischen 1918 und 1933
    • Munich
    • Klaus Schumann, "Kommunalpolitik in München zwischen 1918 und 1933," in Christoph Stölzl, Die Zwanziger Jahre in München (Munich, 1979), 1-17.
    • (1979) Die Zwanziger Jahre in München , pp. 1-17
    • Schumann, K.1
  • 48
    • 84868732094 scopus 로고
    • Munich
    • See the catalogue for the eponymous 1993-94 exhibition at the Munich city museum, München - "Hauptstadt der Bewegung," (Munich, 1993) for the most comprehensive view of the relationship between the city and the movement.
    • (1993) Hauptstadt der Bewegung
    • München1
  • 50
    • 79958559581 scopus 로고
    • Hitler and the Bavarian Background to National Socialism
    • ed. Anthony Nicholls and Erich Matthias London
    • Anthony Nicholls, "Hitler and the Bavarian Background to National Socialism," in: German Democracy and the Triumph of Hitler, ed. Anthony Nicholls and Erich Matthias (London, 1971), 99-128.
    • (1971) German Democracy and the Triumph of Hitler , pp. 99-128
    • Nicholls, A.1
  • 51
    • 79958498714 scopus 로고
    • Zwischen Kapitalismus und Kommunismus
    • 18 February
    • Freya Eisner, "Zwischen Kapitalismus und Kommunismus," Die Zeit, 18 February 1994, p. 74;
    • (1994) Die Zeit , pp. 74
    • Eisner, F.1
  • 52
    • 84868798615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "pagan altar," 275
    • Allan Mitchell refers to this memorial as a "pagan altar," 275;
  • 56
    • 84868731043 scopus 로고
    • Stadtrat, 14 January, 21 January 1947, 289-98
    • Little evidence exists of the actual plaque. The Munich Stadtarchiv possesses no records of it; the few references to it appear after 1945 with the attempts of certain city councilmembers to restore it. Stadtarchiv München/Ratsitzungsprotokolle (StAMü/RP), Stadtrat, 14 January 1947, 190-91; 21 January 1947, 289-98.
    • (1947) Stadtarchiv München/Ratsitzungsprotokolle (StAMü/RP) , pp. 190-191
  • 60
    • 79958629033 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Guttmann, Giesing, 176-79
    • Guttmann, Giesing, 176-79. As one Nazi councilman argued, "the memory of Kurt Eisner will remain preserved by the people... as a deterrent example for those who are inclined to harm the state."
  • 66
    • 79958488175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Guttmann, Giesing, 176-79
    • Guttmann, Giesing, 176-79;
  • 67
    • 79958614368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, no. 7 (31 May 1946): 154
    • Under the terms of Allied Control Council Directive no. 30, "any monument... which tends to preserve ... the German military tradition ... or to commemorate the Nazi party... must be completely destroyed ..." "Directive no. 30," Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, no. 7 (31 May 1946): 154.
  • 70
    • 84868767737 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Hauptausschuss, 13 February 1947, 174-76
    • City building director Hermann Leitenstorfer gave his approval for the demolition after concluding that "artistic reasons for preserving [the figure] have receded in importance." StAMü/RP, Hauptausschuss, 13 February 1947, 174-76;
  • 71
    • 84868825821 scopus 로고
    • Gegen das Freikorps-Denkmal
    • 20 December
    • "Gegen das Freikorps-Denkmal," Münchner Mittag, 20 December 1946, p. 5.
    • (1946) Münchner Mittag , pp. 5
  • 72
    • 79958501335 scopus 로고
    • Ein Kinderbaum.. .
    • 27 October
    • In its place, a bronze sculpture by Josef Erber representing children at play, flanked by reliefs of scenes from local history, was erected in the fall of 1959. "Ein Kinderbaum.. .," SZ, 27 October 1959, p. 4;
    • (1959) SZ , pp. 4
  • 73
    • 84868798608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 21 January 1947, 291
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 21 January 1947, 291.
  • 74
    • 84868789964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 21 January 1947, 294
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 21 January 1947, 294.
  • 75
    • 84868776012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, StR, Aktensammlung, 22 April 1958, 1326
    • StAMü/RP, StR, Aktensammlung, 22 April 1958, 1326.
  • 76
    • 79958556685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Guttmann, Giesing, 176-79, 259
    • In light of this bill, assertions that the monument was restored in 1945 appear to be in error. See Guttmann, Giesing, 176-79, 259
  • 77
    • 84868835666 scopus 로고
    • Die Inschrift und das Vermächtnis aufpoliert
    • 23 May
    • and "Die Inschrift und das Vermächtnis aufpoliert," SZ, 23 May 1989, p. 15.
    • (1989) SZ , pp. 15
  • 78
    • 79958523103 scopus 로고
    • Photo with caption
    • February
    • Photo with caption, SZ, 22/23 February 1969, p. 15.
    • (1969) SZ , vol.22-23 , pp. 15
  • 79
    • 79958497539 scopus 로고
    • Eisners Andenken ehren
    • 21 February
    • As indicated by a local citizen's demand (in a letter to the editor in the Süddeutsche Zeitung at this same time) to restore of the original plaque at the site (demolished by the Nazis), the Weimar-era monument had clearly persisted in local memory. "Eisners Andenken ehren," SZ, 21 February 1969, p. 12.
    • (1969) SZ , pp. 12
  • 80
    • 84868789956 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Hauptausschuss, 14 January 1969, 6-21
    • StAMü/RP, Hauptausschuss, 14 January 1969, 6-21.
  • 81
    • 84868798601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 15 January 1969, 66-95
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 15 January 1969, 66-95.
  • 82
    • 84868776005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Hauptausschuss, 14 January 1969, 6-21
    • StAMü/RP, Hauptausschuss, 14 January 1969, 6-21.
  • 83
    • 84868789948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 15 January 1969, 66-95
    • StAMü/RP, Stadtrat, 15 January 1969, 66-95.
  • 84
    • 79958667884 scopus 로고
    • Leser schreiben uns
    • 23 January
    • "Leser schreiben uns," MM, 23 January 1969, p. 16.
    • (1969) MM , pp. 16
  • 85
    • 79958658180 scopus 로고
    • Starkes Echo zum Thema Strassennamen
    • January
    • "Starkes Echo zum Thema Strassennamen," MM, 18/19 January 1969, p. 10;
    • (1969) MM , vol.18-19 , pp. 10
  • 86
    • 79958489316 scopus 로고
    • Wo Kurt Eisner ermordert wurde . ..
    • 9 November
    • "Wo Kurt Eisner ermordert wurde . ..," SZ, 9 November 1976, p. 19. This fear was not unfounded given the destructive attacks against a plaque dedicated to Lenin on the site of his former residence in Schwabing in 1970.
    • (1976) SZ , pp. 19
  • 87
    • 79958681217 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alckens, Giesing, 76
    • Alckens, Giesing, 76.
  • 89
    • 84868728365 scopus 로고
    • Letter from Hannes König
    • 6 September
    • Letter from Hannes König, SZ, 6 September 1985, p. 20.
    • (1985) SZ , pp. 20
  • 90
    • 79958685833 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • RMDSS/RP, Lottmann Antrag, no. 819, 20 August 1985
    • RMDSS/RP, Lottmann Antrag, no. 819, 20 August 1985;
  • 91
    • 79958615877 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bauausschuss, 24 October 1985, 382-85
    • Bauausschuss, 24 October 1985, 382-85;
  • 92
    • 79958574264 scopus 로고
    • Letters from Gerald Engasser
    • 13 September
    • See letters from Gerald Engasser, Paul Walter, Peter Hendl, SZ, 13 September 1985, p. 16
    • (1985) SZ , pp. 16
    • Walter, P.1    Hendl, P.2
  • 93
    • 79958659356 scopus 로고
    • 25 September
    • and Heinrich Bihrle and Klaus Budzinkski, SZ, 25 September 1985, p. 16;
    • (1985) SZ , pp. 16
    • Bihrle, H.1    Budzinkski, K.2
  • 94
    • 79958548692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bauausschuss, 24 October 1985, 382-85
    • Opponents had claimed that insufficient space existed on the sidewalk site for a monument. RMDSS/RP, Bauausschuss, 24 October 1985, 382-85;
  • 95
    • 79958502499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bauausschuss, 27 February 1986, Aktensammlung, 497-502
    • Bauausschuss, 27 February 1986, Aktensammlung, 497-502;
  • 96
    • 84868723816 scopus 로고
    • Unsichtbares Denkmal für Kurt Eisner
    • 23 February
    • While the commissioning of a monument would take several years to yield results, unconventional interim measures served to maintain the new interest in Eisner. On 21 February 1986, the anniversary of Eisner's death, members of the SPD-affiliated group, "The Other Bavaria," launched its action "the invisible monument," tearing up a flagstone in the Kardinal-Faulhaber-Strasse's sidewalk and burying a plastic painting of Eisner beneath it, before restoring the site's appearance. While the commemorative impact of this action was limited, it attested to a new impulse to recognize Eisner's symbolic importance. "Unsichtbares Denkmal für Kurt Eisner," SZ, 23 February 1986, p. 19;
    • (1986) SZ , pp. 19
  • 97
    • 79958583638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • RMDSS/RP, Bauausschuss, 2 February 1989, Aktensammlung, 506
    • RMDSS/RP, Bauausschuss, 2 February 1989, Aktensammlung, 506.
  • 98
    • 79958509490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • RMDSS/RP, Stadtrat, 22 February 1989, 113-44
    • RMDSS/RP, Stadtrat, 22 February 1989, 113-44.
  • 100
    • 79958647002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • RMDSS/RP, Stadtrat, 22 February 1989, 113-44
    • RMDSS/RP, Stadtrat, 22 February 1989, 113-44.
  • 101
    • 84868745764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The naming of "Erich-Mühsam-Platz" in Schwabing in 1989 also represents the creation of a site for the political Left. Dollinger, Die Münchner Strassennamen, 72.
    • Die Münchner Strassennamen , pp. 72
    • Dollinger1
  • 102
    • 67649720324 scopus 로고
    • Historikerstreit auf bayerisch
    • 7 November
    • Christian Schneider, "Historikerstreit auf bayerisch," SZ, 6/7 November 1993, p. 3.
    • (1993) SZ , vol.6 , pp. 3
    • Schneider, C.1
  • 103
    • 79958636077 scopus 로고
    • Mit Verkehrsschild und Tomatensaft
    • 25 April
    • "Mit Verkehrsschild und Tomatensaft," SZ, 25 April 1994, p. 14;
    • (1994) SZ , pp. 14
  • 104
    • 79958585174 scopus 로고
    • Denken an einen Ermordeten
    • 25 April
    • "Denken an einen Ermordeten," Abendzeitung, 25 April 1994, p. 12. The monument was erected by the local artists Wolfram Kastner and Eckhard Zylla.
    • (1994) Abendzeitung , pp. 12
  • 105
    • 79958542392 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eine Tafel erinnert jetzt an Gustav Landauer
    • January
    • "Eine Tafel erinnert jetzt an Gustav Landauer," SZ, 25/26 January 1997, p. 45. The plaque's text reads: "Gustav Landauer, 1870-1919, philosopher, translator, and briefly. People's Representative for Popular Enlightenment, was murdered at the end of the Munich Soviet Republic on May 2, 1919 in Munich-Stadelheim, as a radical socialist and violent anarchist."
    • (1997) SZ , vol.25-26 , pp. 45
  • 106
    • 61049289918 scopus 로고
    • Reinbek bei Hamburg
    • To a degree, this failure reflects a built-in deficiency of monuments which, as many observers have pointed out, do not preserve memory to the extent commonly assumed. Whether or not one fully accepts the somewhat cynical views of Robert Musil that "there is nothing in the world so invisible as [a] monument" or James Young, that "the more memory comes to rest in its exteriorized forms, the less it is experienced internally," one must avoid the naive assumption that monuments inevitably preserve memory. Robert Musil, Gesammelte Werke (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1978), 506;
    • (1978) Gesammelte Werke , pp. 506
    • Musil, R.1
  • 109
    • 84868775998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (entitled Der Fall der Denkmäler) (1992)
    • For a wide range of essays concerning the toppling of GDR monuments in the early 1990s, see the entire issue of kritische berichte 3 (entitled "Der Fall der Denkmäler) (1992).
  • 112
    • 0041436020 scopus 로고
    • Totalitarianism Revisited: Nazism and Stalinism in Comparative Perspective
    • See, for example, Ian Kershaw, "Totalitarianism Revisited: Nazism and Stalinism in Comparative Perspective," Tel Aviver Jahrbuch für Deutsche Geschichte 23 (1994): 23-41.
    • (1994) Tel Aviver Jahrbuch für Deutsche Geschichte , vol.23 , pp. 23-41
    • Kershaw, I.1


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