Contradiction and consciousness in ⊂Ali Mubarak's description of Al-Azhar

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 53-69

  Reimer, Michael J ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO   (Egypt)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 6144266126     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800064151     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. ⊂Ali Mubarak (1823/4-1893)" (University of Michigan, 1977).
2. ⊂Ali Mubarak (1823/4-1893)" (University of Michigan, 1977).
3. ⊂Ali Mubarak's Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign) as a Source for the History of Modern Egypt," in Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 13-27.
4. ⊂Ali Mubarak's Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign) as a Source for the History of Modern Egypt," in Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 13-27.
5. ⊂Ali Mubarak) had two effects: "The first is the creation of a historical consciousness which led Egyptians to be interested in history generally and in the history of Egypt in the various ages in particular. The second is the kindling of patriotism and the strengthening of the national spirit. . . . [M]any factors combined to give these two effects. However, the most important among them, in my opinion, is the new understanding of Ancient Egyptian history and of Egyptian civilization as one continuous entity. Connected with this was the pride which the new historians had in the glories of that history and civilization."
6. Jack Crabbs, The Writing of History in Nineteenth-Century Egypt: A Study in National Transformation (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1984), 118.
7. ⊂Ali Mubarak did), see Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 138. The themes and methodology of the Khitat bear the clear imprint of positivism.
8. ⊂Ali Mubarak did), see Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 138. The themes and methodology of the Khitat bear the clear imprint of positivism.
9. 2], s.v. "Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign)").
10. 2], s.v. "Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign)").
11. 2], s.v. "Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign)").
12. ⊂Ali Mubarak's Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign) (1:2, discussed later).
13. The purpose is therefore not, except incidentally, to evaluate the historical accuracy and utility of the Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign). On these topics, see Baer, Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign).
14. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 1:55-56.
15. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 1:80.
16. 2, s.v. "Ghuzz").
17. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 1:2, 56, 76, 80. To be precise, the return to conditions of security, well-being, and civilized order mentioned on 1:80 refer specifically to the period after the cessation of war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire in 1841.
18. It is not the purpose here to debate the "decline" thesis. Recent treatments challenging traditional views of "decline" include Jane Hathaway, "The Military Household in Ottoman Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (1995): 39-52; and Nelly Hanna, ed., The State and Its Servants: Administration in Egypt from Ottoman Times to the Present (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995). The myth of reawakening is common to Old World nationalism, as indicated by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991), 194-95.
19. It is not the purpose here to debate the "decline" thesis. Recent treatments challenging traditional views of "decline" include Jane Hathaway, "The Military Household in Ottoman Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (1995): 39-52; and Nelly Hanna, ed., The State and Its Servants: Administration in Egypt from Ottoman Times to the Present (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995). The myth of reawakening is common to Old World nationalism, as indicated by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991), 194-95.
20. It is not the purpose here to debate the "decline" thesis. Recent treatments challenging traditional views of "decline" include Jane Hathaway, "The Military Household in Ottoman Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (1995): 39-52; and Nelly Hanna, ed., The State and Its Servants: Administration in Egypt from Ottoman Times to the Present (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995). The myth of reawakening is common to Old World nationalism, as indicated by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991), 194-95.
21. e siècle, 2 vols. (Cairo: IFAO, 1982), 2:532-33; and Ehud R. Toledano, "Mehmet Ali Paşa or Muhammad Ali Basha? An Historiographical Appraisal in the Wake of a Recent Book," Middle Eastern Studies 21 (1985): 141-59.
22. e siècle, 2 vols. (Cairo: IFAO, 1982), 2:532-33; and Ehud R. Toledano, "Mehmet Ali Paşa or Muhammad Ali Basha? An Historiographical Appraisal in the Wake of a Recent Book," Middle Eastern Studies 21 (1985): 141-59.
23. 2, s.v. "Al-Azhar." Fuller discussions are found in Michael Winter, Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1798 (London: Routledge, 1992), 118 ff. See also J. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt (London: Luzac & Co., 1938), 17 ff.
24. 2, s.v. "Al-Azhar." Fuller discussions are found in Michael Winter, Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1798 (London: Routledge, 1992), 118 ff. See also J. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt (London: Luzac & Co., 1938), 17 ff.
25. ⊂atan, 2 vols. (Cairo: Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, 1984).
26. ⊂atan, 2 vols. (Cairo: Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, 1984).
27. ⊂Ali's reforms on waqf lands remains unstudied; on other land-tenure issues, see Kenneth M. Cuno, The Pasha's Peasants (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
28. ⊂Ali's reforms on waqf lands remains unstudied; on other land-tenure issues, see Kenneth M. Cuno, The Pasha's Peasants (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
29. Ehud R. Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 72; A. Chris Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change: Al-Azhar in Conflict and Accommodation (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1984), 73 ff.
30. Ehud R. Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 72; A. Chris Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change: Al-Azhar in Conflict and Accommodation (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1984), 73 ff.
31. ⊂Ali Mubarak's principal source in this section is al-Jabarti.
32. ⊂il were very modest: K. A. C. Creswell (The Muslim Architecture of Egypt [Oxford: Clarendon, 1952], 1:41) mentions only the rebuilding of some arcades in the right half of the sanctuary.
33. ⊂il were very modest: K. A. C. Creswell (The Muslim Architecture of Egypt [Oxford: Clarendon, 1952], 1:41) mentions only the rebuilding of some arcades in the right half of the sanctuary.
34. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:13-14.
35. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:22-24.
36. Jomard, in the Description de l'Égypte's discussion of the city of Cairo and the Citadel, says that there were perhaps 1,500 students at al-Azhar in the late 18th century ("Description abrégée de la ville et de la citadelle du Kaire," Description de l'Égypte: État moderne, vol. 2, pt. 2, 665); Gamal El-Din El-Shayyal ("Some Aspects of Intellectual and Social Life in Eighteenth-Century Egypt," in Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt), says that there were 60 or 70 professors at al-Azhar at about the same time (p. 115). If these figures are right, the 19th century witnessed a large increase in the number of Azharis: the statistics for 1875 show 361 teaching shaykhs and 10,780 residential students (mujāwirūn) at al-Azhar (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:14). However, the increase most probably occurred after 1840, as the estimates we possess for the 1830s show no increase over the Description's figures. See Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 27-28.
37. Jomard, in the Description de l'Égypte's discussion of the city of Cairo and the Citadel, says that there were perhaps 1,500 students at al-Azhar in the late 18th century ("Description abrégée de la ville et de la citadelle du Kaire," Description de l'Égypte: État moderne, vol. 2, pt. 2, 665); Gamal El-Din El-Shayyal ("Some Aspects of Intellectual and Social Life in Eighteenth-Century Egypt," in Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt), says that there were 60 or 70 professors at al-Azhar at about the same time (p. 115). If these figures are right, the 19th century witnessed a large increase in the number of Azharis: the statistics for 1875 show 361 teaching shaykhs and 10,780 residential students (mujāwirūn) at al-Azhar (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:14). However, the increase most probably occurred after 1840, as the estimates we possess for the 1830s show no increase over the Description's figures. See Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 27-28.
38. Jomard, in the Description de l'Égypte's discussion of the city of Cairo and the Citadel, says that there were perhaps 1,500 students at al-Azhar in the late 18th century ("Description abrégée de la ville et de la citadelle du Kaire," Description de l'Égypte: État moderne, vol. 2, pt. 2, 665); Gamal El-Din El-Shayyal ("Some Aspects of Intellectual and Social Life in Eighteenth-Century Egypt," in Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt), says that there were 60 or 70 professors at al-Azhar at about the same time (p. 115). If these figures are right, the 19th century witnessed a large increase in the number of Azharis: the statistics for 1875 show 361 teaching shaykhs and 10,780 residential students (mujāwirūn) at al-Azhar (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:14). However, the increase most probably occurred after 1840, as the estimates we possess for the 1830s show no increase over the Description's figures. See Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 27-28.
39. Jomard, in the Description de l'Égypte's discussion of the city of Cairo and the Citadel, says that there were perhaps 1,500 students at al-Azhar in the late 18th century ("Description abrégée de la ville et de la citadelle du Kaire," Description de l'Égypte: État moderne, vol. 2, pt. 2, 665); Gamal El-Din El-Shayyal ("Some Aspects of Intellectual and Social Life in Eighteenth-Century Egypt," in Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt), says that there were 60 or 70 professors at al-Azhar at about the same time (p. 115). If these figures are right, the 19th century witnessed a large increase in the number of Azharis: the statistics for 1875 show 361 teaching shaykhs and 10,780 residential students (mujāwirūn) at al-Azhar (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:14). However, the increase most probably occurred after 1840, as the estimates we possess for the 1830s show no increase over the Description's figures. See Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 27-28.
40. ⊂arab (Cairo, 1891). Sédillot, a medievalist, has little to say about the Ottomans, and what he does say is entirely negative. Commenting upon the causes of cultural decline in Islam, he says, "malheureusement le fatalisme des Ottomans jettera un manteau du glace sur tous les peuples soumis à leur empire" (p. 440).
41. ⊂arab (Cairo, 1891). Sédillot, a medievalist, has little to say about the Ottomans, and what he does say is entirely negative. Commenting upon the causes of cultural decline in Islam, he says, "malheureusement le fatalisme des Ottomans jettera un manteau du glace sur tous les peuples soumis à leur empire" (p. 440).
42. ⊂Ali Mubarak and other reformers that they commonly use "civilization" (tamaddun) without qualifying it geographically or culturally. Mubarak implies that the countries that attain intellectual leadership, political dominance, and material progress are the carriers of the only "civilization" worth embracing.
43. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 2:535.
44. ⊂ al-azhar al-azhar.
45. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:13.
46. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:26. The passage describing this loose system of promotion is translated in Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 159; see also Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, trans. from the French by Jean Stewart (London: Faber & Faber, 1972), 80-81.
47. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:26. The passage describing this loose system of promotion is translated in Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 159; see also Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, trans. from the French by Jean Stewart (London: Faber & Faber, 1972), 80-81.
48. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:26. The passage describing this loose system of promotion is translated in Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 159; see also Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, trans. from the French by Jean Stewart (London: Faber & Faber, 1972), 80-81.
49. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:41. See also Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, "The Beginnings of Modernization among the Rectors of al-Azhar, 1798-1879," in The Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 277-79.
50. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:41. See also Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, "The Beginnings of Modernization among the Rectors of al-Azhar, 1798-1879," in The Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 277-79.
51. Khitat, 4:26-27. On these reforms, see also Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 126 ff, 150; Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961), 40-52; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 41 ff, 400-401; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 278-80; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 81.
52. Khitat, 4:26-27. On these reforms, see also Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 126 ff, 150; Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961), 40-52; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 41 ff, 400-401; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 278-80; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 81.
53. Khitat, 4:26-27. On these reforms, see also Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 126 ff, 150; Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961), 40-52; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 41 ff, 400-401; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 278-80; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 81.
54. Khitat, 4:26-27. On these reforms, see also Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 126 ff, 150; Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961), 40-52; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 41 ff, 400-401; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 278-80; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 81.
55. Khitat, 4:26-27. On these reforms, see also Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 126 ff, 150; Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961), 40-52; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 41 ff, 400-401; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 278-80; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 81.
56. Khitat, 4:26-27. On these reforms, see also Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 126 ff, 150; Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961), 40-52; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 41 ff, 400-401; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 278-80; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 81.
57. ⊂Arabī, 1984), 277-78.
58. ⊂Arabī, 1984), 277-78.
59. ⊂Ali Mubarak does not say directly that the changes have had these evil results. Rather, he introduces this criticism with the impersonal rubbamā yuqālu inna ("it might be said that. . ."). However, it is likely that he accepts this criticism of the graduates of the new system. Other judgments of the reform's value are offered in Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 279-80; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 400; and Ibrahim Salama, L'Enseignement islamique en Egypte (Cairo: Imprimérie Nationale, 1938), 240-41.
60. ⊂Ali Mubarak does not say directly that the changes have had these evil results. Rather, he introduces this criticism with the impersonal rubbamā yuqālu inna ("it might be said that. . ."). However, it is likely that he accepts this criticism of the graduates of the new system. Other judgments of the reform's value are offered in Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 279-80; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 400; and Ibrahim Salama, L'Enseignement islamique en Egypte (Cairo: Imprimérie Nationale, 1938), 240-41.
61. ⊂Ali Mubarak does not say directly that the changes have had these evil results. Rather, he introduces this criticism with the impersonal rubbamā yuqālu inna ("it might be said that. . ."). However, it is likely that he accepts this criticism of the graduates of the new system. Other judgments of the reform's value are offered in Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 279-80; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 400; and Ibrahim Salama, L'Enseignement islamique en Egypte (Cairo: Imprimérie Nationale, 1938), 240-41.
62. ⊂Ali Mubarak does not say directly that the changes have had these evil results. Rather, he introduces this criticism with the impersonal rubbamā yuqālu inna ("it might be said that. . ."). However, it is likely that he accepts this criticism of the graduates of the new system. Other judgments of the reform's value are offered in Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 279-80; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 400; and Ibrahim Salama, L'Enseignement islamique en Egypte (Cairo: Imprimérie Nationale, 1938), 240-41.
63. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:30.
64. ⊂iffa." The point is important because the students at al-Azhar are plainly lacking in this virtue.
65. ⊂iffa." The point is important because the students at al-Azhar are plainly lacking in this virtue.
66. In part, this reputation derived from persons who sought al-Azhar not for education but as a refuge from conscription, tax arrears, or blood vengeance (Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 77).
67. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:30. The system of handling disputes at al-Azhar is discussed by Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 168-69.
68. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:30. The system of handling disputes at al-Azhar is discussed by Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 168-69.
69. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:30.
70. It goes without saying that the Maghribi mujāwirūn had a reputation for this kind of behavior. When it came to selecting candidates for expulsion, there were obviously plenty of ruffians to choose from (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:40). See also Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 397; and Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276.
71. It goes without saying that the Maghribi mujāwirūn had a reputation for this kind of behavior. When it came to selecting candidates for expulsion, there were obviously plenty of ruffians to choose from (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:40). See also Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 397; and Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276.
72. It goes without saying that the Maghribi mujāwirūn had a reputation for this kind of behavior. When it came to selecting candidates for expulsion, there were obviously plenty of ruffians to choose from (Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:40). See also Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 397; and Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276.
73. Kht + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:41; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 398; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276 f; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 79-80.
74. Kht + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:41; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 398; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276 f; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 79-80.
75. Kht + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:41; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 398; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276 f; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 79-80.
76. Kht + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:41; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, 398; Marsot, "Beginnings of Modernization," 276 f; Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 79-80.
77. ⊂Ilish is studied in Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 1:129-67; his strictures on other ulama are given in Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 78.
78. ⊂Ilish is studied in Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 1:129-67; his strictures on other ulama are given in Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 78.
79. ⊂Ilish is studied in Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 1:129-67; his strictures on other ulama are given in Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, 78.
80. ⊂Alam al-Din (Moralistes et politiques, 2:542-44).
81. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:43-44; Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 1:131-33.
82. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:43-44; Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 1:131-33.
83. ⊂Ulama in Nineteenth-Century Egypt," Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 41-76.
84. ⊂Ulama in Nineteenth-Century Egypt," Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 41-76.
85. ⊂Ulama in Nineteenth-Century Egypt," Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 41-76.
86. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 1:2-3.
87. Subsequent sections of the Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign) will deal with a host of other buildings (e.g., schools, hospitals, roads, markets, etc.).
88. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 204-5.
89. ⊂Alam al-Din. See the discussion in Dykstra, "A Biographical Study," 400-418, 526-34.
90. On the obligation to the watan, see Dykstra, "A Biographical Study," 415-16. It is worth noting that the identification of place with ruler, whereby a "foreign" dynasty is naturalized, is suggested even in the title of the work, al-Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign) al-Tawfiqiyya. On nationalism and the naturalization of ruling families, see Anderson, Imagined Communities, 83 ff.
91. On the obligation to the watan, see Dykstra, "A Biographical Study," 415-16. It is worth noting that the identification of place with ruler, whereby a "foreign" dynasty is naturalized, is suggested even in the title of the work, al-Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign) al-Tawfiqiyya. On nationalism and the naturalization of ruling families, see Anderson, Imagined Communities, 83 ff.
92. ⊂Ali Mubārak, 278-79.
93. ⊂Ali Mubārak, 278-79.
94. ⊂AH Mubarak may also be expressing a grudge he held against the ulama of al-Azhar: Dykstra makes the intriguing suggestion that Mubarak may have approached them with the idea of writing the Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), only to be rebuffed ("A Biographical Study," 422).
95. ⊂AH Mubarak may also be expressing a grudge he held against the ulama of al-Azhar: Dykstra makes the intriguing suggestion that Mubarak may have approached them with the idea of writing the Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), only to be rebuffed ("A Biographical Study," 422).
96. ⊂AH Mubarak may also be expressing a grudge he held against the ulama of al-Azhar: Dykstra makes the intriguing suggestion that Mubarak may have approached them with the idea of writing the Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), only to be rebuffed ("A Biographical Study," 422).
97. ⊂Alamuddin," 21-37.
98. ⊂Alamuddin," 21-37.
99. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 2:543-44.
100. ⊂Ulum originated (ibid., p. 241). However, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the institution stagnated; the 19th century witnessed a narrowing rather than an expansion of al-Azhar's curriculum - an unintended result of the attempt at reform in 1872.
101. ⊂Ulum originated (ibid., p. 241). However, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the institution stagnated; the 19th century witnessed a narrowing rather than an expansion of al-Azhar's curriculum - an unintended result of the attempt at reform in 1872.
102. ⊂Ulum originated (ibid., p. 241). However, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the institution stagnated; the 19th century witnessed a narrowing rather than an expansion of al-Azhar's curriculum - an unintended result of the attempt at reform in 1872.
103. ⊂Ulum originated (ibid., p. 241). However, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the institution stagnated; the 19th century witnessed a narrowing rather than an expansion of al-Azhar's curriculum - an unintended result of the attempt at reform in 1872.
104. Khit + (Combining dot below sign)at + (Combining dot below sign), 4:29.
105. ⊂Alamuddin," 30-31. It is interesting to note that in the monitorial system of schooling developed in England (which may have been one of the models for the new schools of Egypt) students were to take their lessons standing, as this was considered better for their health. See Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 69-71.
106. ⊂Alamuddin," 30-31. It is interesting to note that in the monitorial system of schooling developed in England (which may have been one of the models for the new schools of Egypt) students were to take their lessons standing, as this was considered better for their health. See Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 69-71.
107. ⊂Ali Mubarak's "religion" is intrinsically reasonable and thus useful. In Delanoue's words: "On veut eduquer une religion utile" (Moralistes et politiques, 2:538-39).
108. The law is analyzed in detail by Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 2:508-11, 550-57; the following comments are based on Delanoue's study.
109. ⊂il, but it was never seriously entertained as something practicable or even desirable.
110. ⊂il, but it was never seriously entertained as something practicable or even desirable.
111. The phraseology and concept of "bypassing al-Azhar" are cribbed from Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 162 ff. On the bifurcation of Egypt's educational system and the rise of new career opportunities for those trained in government schools, see Donald Reid, Cairo University and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 11-17.
112. The phraseology and concept of "bypassing al-Azhar" are cribbed from Eccel, Egypt, Islam, and Social Change, 162 ff. On the bifurcation of Egypt's educational system and the rise of new career opportunities for those trained in government schools, see Donald Reid, Cairo University and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 11-17.
113. ⊂Urabi movement (as was pointed out to me by Professor Donald Reid). Nevertheless, it is obvious that a presentation of Cairo's topography and history without al-Azhar would not be credible.
114. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 2:523-25.
115. ⊂Alam al-Din; see his Moralistes et politiques, 2:537-44.
116. On the spiritual atmosphere of al-Azhar, see the Khitat, 4:12; on the shaykhs mentioned here, see ibid., 4:40-44.
117. On the spiritual atmosphere of al-Azhar, see the Khitat, 4:12; on the shaykhs mentioned here, see ibid., 4:40-44.
118. ⊂Ali Mubarak's judgment concerning the 19th century is correct, then civic pride, spirit, and achievement were quite alien to the spirit of education at al-Azhar.
119. ⊂lbar. On the layered meanings of the term, see Muhsin Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 63-73.
120. ⊂lbar. On the layered meanings of the term, see Muhsin Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 63-73.
121. ⊂ wa qus + (Combining dot below sign)ūr ("manufactories and palaces").
122. ⊃ ib al-āthār fi al-tarājim wa al-akhbār, 3 vols. (Beirut: Dār al-Jīl, n.d.), 1:6, 9. This is quite unlike Ah Mubarak's challenge to contemporary Egyptians based on the specific history of their community.
123. ⊃ ib al-āthār fi al-tarājim wa al-akhbār, 3 vols. (Beirut: Dār al-Jīl, n.d.), 1:6, 9. This is quite unlike Ah Mubarak's challenge to contemporary Egyptians based on the specific history of their community.
124. ⊂ili (and hence heretical) origins of al-Azhar. The importance of the institution lies rather in its accumulated architectural endowments, and the great men and events of its past, not in its doctrine.