Practice mitigating murder at capital sentencing: An empirical and practical psycho-legal strategy

Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 1-34

  Fabian, John Matthew ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Death penalty; Mitigation; Murder; Violence risk

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN FUNCTION; CHILD ABUSE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR; CRIMINAL JUSTICE; FAMILY ATTITUDE; FAMILY INTERACTION; FORENSIC PSYCHIATRY; HOMICIDE; HUMAN; HUMAN RIGHTS; JUVENILE DELINQUENCY; LAW SUIT; MENTAL CAPACITY; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL HEALTH; OFFENDER; PARENTAL BEHAVIOR; PEER PRESSURE; PUNISHMENT; RISK FACTOR; SCHOOL STRESS; SOCIAL ASPECT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; UNITED STATES; VIOLENCE;

EID: 61349124362     PISSN: 15228932     EISSN: 15229092     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15228930802425084     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Lockett v. Ohio, 438 U.S. 586 at 604, 605 (1978).
2. Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280 at 304 (1976).
3. Eddings v. Oklahoma, 455 U.S. 104 (1982).
4. Penry v. Texas, 532 U.S. 782 (2001).
5. Tennard v. Dretke, 542 U.S. 274 Smith v. Texas, 543 U.S. 37 (2004).
6. Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668 (1984).
7. Wiggins v. Smith, 539 U.S. 510 (2003).
8. Williams v. Taylor, 529 U.S. 362 (2000).
9. Rompilla v. Beard, 545 U.S. 374 (2005).
10. The American Bar Association Guidelines for the Appointment and Performance of Defense Counsel in Death Penalty Cases (rev. ed. 2003).
11. Id. Guideline 10.7 - Investigation.
12. Id. Guideline 10.4 - The Defense Team.
13. Penry v. Lynaugh,409 U.S. 302 (1989). For articles regarding the importance of mitigating evidence in capital cases
14. See Russell Stetler, Mitigation Evidence in Death Penalty Cases, 23 CHAMPION 35, 37 (JAN/FEB., 1999), available at www.criminaljustice.org/ ublic.nsf/championarticles/99jan04?opendocument.
15. Jeff Blum, Investigation in a Capital Case. Telling the Client's Story, 9 CHAMPION 27, 27 (AUG. 1985).
16. John H. Blume & Pamela Leonard, Principles of Developing and Presenting Mental Health Evidence in Criminal Cases, 24 CHAMPION 63, 67 (NOV. 2000).
17. David C. Stebbins & Scott P. Kenney, Zen and the Art of Mitigation Presentation or, the Use of Psycho-Social Experts in the Penalty Phase of a Capital trial, 10 Champion 14, 14 (aug., 1986).
18. See Phyllis L. Crocker, Concepts of Culpability and Deathworthiness: Differentiating Between Guilt and Punishment in Death Penalty Cases, 66 fordham l. rev. 21, (1997).
19. See John M. Fabian, Death Penalty Mitigation and the Role of the Forensic Psychologist, law & psychology rev., vol. 27, (2003).
20. 42 PA C.S. § 9711.
21. American Law Institute Accordingly, when explaining to a jury the nexus between the defendant's mental illness and the homicide, it is critical for the forensic psychologist expert to consider encompassing moral/ affective/cognitive dimensions of "appreciation" and "conformity."
22. 720 ILCS 5/9-1 (2005).
23. OHIO REVISED CODE 2929.94(B).
24. Skipper v. South Carolina, 476 U.S. 1 (1982).
25. See Mark D. Cunningham & M.P. Vigen. Death row inmate characteristics, adjustment, and confinement: A critical review of the literature. BEHAV. SCI. & L. 20(1-2) 2002.
26. P. Santtila & J. Happasalo. Neurological and psychological risk factors among young homicidal, violent, and nonviolent offenders in Finland. HOMICIDE STUDIES 1(3) 1997.
27. D. Lewis, J. Pincus, B. Bard, E. Richardson, L. Prichep, M. Feldman, & C. Yeager. Neuropsychiatric, psychoeducational, and family characteristics of 14 juveniles condemned to death in the United States. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. 145(5) 1988.
28. See OFFICE OF JUVENILE JUSTICE AND DELINQUENCY PREVENTION, found at http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/.
29. L. Augimeri, C. Koegl, C. Webster, & K. Levene. EARLY ASSESSMENT RISK LIST FOR BOYS (EARL-20B): VERSION 2. Toronto, Canada: Earlscourt Child and Family Centre.
30. P. Enebrink, N. Långström, & C. Gumpert. Predicting Aggressive and Disruptive Behavior in Referred 6-to 12-year-old boys. ASSESSMENT 13(3) 2006 356-367.
31. See Randy Borum, P. Bartel, & Adelle Forth (2002). Manual For The Structured Assessment Of Violence Risk In Youth (SAVRY) Version 1.1. Tampa, FL: LOUIS DE LA PARTE FLORIDA MENTAL HEALTH INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA.
32. See J.D. Hawkins, T.I. Herrenkohl, D.P. Farrington, D. Brewer, R.F. Catalano, T.W. Harachi, and L. Cothern. Predictors of Youth Violence, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTCIE, OFFICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS, OFFICE OF JUVENILE JUSTICE AND DELINQUENCY PREVENTION (APRIL, 2000). ROLF LOEBER & DAVID FARRINGTON (EDS.), SERIOUS & VIOLENT JUVENILE OFFENDERSE. RISK FACTORS AND SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTIONS (1998).
33. A.S. Masten & N. Garmezy. (1985). Risk, vulnerability, and protective factors in developmental psychopathology. In Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 1-52).
34. J.D. Hawkins, T. I. Herrenkohl, D.P. Farrington, D. Brewer, R.F. Catalano, T.W. Harachi (2000). Predictors of youth violence. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.
35. See J.W. Swanson, C.E. Holzer, V.K. Ganju, & R.T. Jono, Swanson, J.W., Holzer, C.E., Ganju, V. K., & Jono, R. T., Violence and Psychiatric Disorder in the Community: Evidence From the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Surveys., HOSP. & COMM. PSYCH., VOL. 41(7), (1990).
36. See J. MONAHAN, H. STEADMAN, E. SILVER, P. APPELBAUM, P. ROBBINS, E. MULVEY, L. ROTH, T. GRISSO, S. BANKS, RETHINKING RISK ASSESSMENT:THE MACARTHUR STUDY OF MENTAL DISORDER AND VIOLENCE (2001). J. Modestin & O. Wuermle. Criminality in men with major mental disorder with and without comorbid substance abuse. PSYCHIATRY & CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCES. 59. 2004.
37. See J.D. Hawkins, T.I. Herrenkohl, D.P. Farrington, D. Brewer, R.F. Catalano, T.W. Harachi, L. Cothem, Predictors of Youth Violence, OJJDP JUVENILE JUSTICE BULLETIN, U.S. DEPT. JUST. BULL. (APRIL, 2000).
38. See R.M. YARVIS, HOMICIDE: CAUSATIVE FACTORS AND ROOTS (1991).
39. See J. REID MELOY, VIOLENCE RISK AND THREAT ASSESSMENT: A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR MENTAL HEALTH AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS (2000).
40. See A. Raine, J.R. Meloy, S. Bihrle, J. Stoddard, L. LaCasse, & M.S. Buchsbaum, Reduced Prefrontal and Increased Subcortical Brain Functioning Assessed Using Positron Emission Tomography in Predatory and Affective Murderer. BEHAV. SCI. & L. 16 (1998).
41. See Dorothy Otnow Lewis et al., Biopsychological Characteristics of Children Who Later Murder: A Prospective Study, 142 AM. J. PSYCHIATRY 1161 (1985).
42. See Functional Families, Dysfunctional Brains. If Murder's Upbringing Provides Few Clues, Brain Dysfunction May Explain The Crime. SCIENCE DAILY Found at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/04/ 980410101830.htm.
43. See H. TOCH & K. ADAMS, THE DISTURBED VIOLENT OFFENDER (1994).
44. See B.G. Link & A. Stueve, Psychotic Symptoms and the Violent/ Illegal Behavior of Mental Patients Compared to Community Controls, in VIOLENCE AND MENTAL DISORDER. DEVELOPMENTS IN RISK ASSESSMENT (Eds. J. Monahan & H.J. Steadman, 1994).
45. See P.J. Taylor. Delusional Disorder and Delusions: Is There a Risk of Violence in Social Interactions About the Core Symptom? BEHAV. SCI. LAW 24, 313-331 (2006).
46. J. Bufkin & V. Luttrell. Neuroimaging studies of aggressive and violent behavior. Current findings and implications for criminology and criminal justice. TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 6(2) 176-191 (2005).
47. P. Blake, J. Pincus, & C. Buckner. Neurologic abnormalities in murderers. NEUROLOGY 45 1995.
48. K. Hawkins & K. Trobst. Frontal lobe dysfunction and aggression: conceptual issues and research findings. AGGRESSION & VIOLENT BEHAVIOR 5(2) 147-157 (2000).
49. K. Heide & E. Solomon. Biology, childhood trauma, and murder: Rethinking justice. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW & PSYCHIATRY. 29 220-233 (2006).
50. B. Henry & T. Moffitt. Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies of juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior. In D. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. Maser (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR (1997).
51. G. Teichner & C. Golden. The relationship of neuropsychological impairment to conduct disorder in adolescence. A conceptual review. AGGRESSION & VIOLENT BEHAVIOR 5(6) 509-528 (2000).
52. B. Pennington & L. Bennetto. Main effects of transactions in the neuropsychology of conduct disorder? Commentary on "The neuropsychology of conduct disorder." DEVELOPMENT & PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 5 1993.
53. T. Moffitt. The neuropsychology of juvenile delinquency: A critical review. In CRIME AND JUSTICE: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH 1990.
54. K. Burns & A. Bechara. Decision making and free will: A neuroscience perspective. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & THE LAW 25 2007.
55. J. LeDoux. 1996. THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN: THE MYSERIOUS UNDERPINNINGS OF EMOTIONAL LIFE.
56. Burns & Bechara.
57. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (1990). Alcohol and health: Seventh special report to Congress. Rockville, MD:AUthor. National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) (1993). Numerous factors implicated in drug-related violence. NIDA Notes, 8.
58. See Cunningham footnote 21.
59. S. Phillips, J. Matusko, & E. Tomasovic. Reconsidering the relationship between alcohol and lethal violence. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 22(1) 2007.
60. H. White, R. Loeber, M. Southamer-Loeber, & D. Farrington. Developmental associations between substance use and violence. DEVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY. 11 1999 785-803.
61. E. Wagner. Substance abuse and violent behavior in adolescence. AGGRESSION & VIOLENT BEHAVIOR 1(4) 1996.
62. D. Elliott, D. Huizinga, S. Menard. MULTIPLE PROBLEM YOUTH: DELINQUENCY SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS. 1989
63. H. White. The drug use-delinquency connection in adolescence. In R. Weisheit (Ed.), DRUGS, CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. 1990.
64. See Cathy Spatz Widom, Child Victims: Search for opportunities to break the cycle of violence. APPLIED PREVENTIVE PSYCHOLOGY 7, 225-234 (1998).
65. P.L. Crocker, Childhood Abuse and Adult Murder: Implications for the Death Penalty, 77 N. CAROLINA L. REV. 3 (1999).
66. D. Rosenstein & H. Horowitz. Adolescent attachment and psychopathology. JOURNAL OF CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY, 64(2) 244-253.
67. See D.M. Capaldi & G.R. Patterson, Can violent offenders be distinguishable from frequent offenders? Prediction from childhood to adolescence. J. OF RES. CRIM. & DEL., 33 (1996).
68. See C.S. Widom, Does Violence Beget Violence? A Critical Examination of the Literature, PSYCH. BULL. VOL. 106, NO. 1 (1989).
69. See J. McCord, Family Relationships, Juvenile Delinquency, and Adult Criminality, J. CRIM. VOL 29, NO. 3 (1991).
70. See R. Weeks & C.S. Widom, Early Childhood victimization Among incarcerated adult male felons, NAT'L. INST. JUST. U.S. DEPT. JUST. (1998).
71. J. Haapasalo & E. Pokela, Child-Rearing And Child Abuse Antecedents Of Criminality, AGGRESSION AND VIOLENT BEHAVIOR, Vol. 4(1) (1999).
72. C. Widom & M. Maxfield, An Update on the Cycle of Violence, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, OFFICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS, (2001).
73. D. Dutton & S. Hart, Evidence for Long-Term, Specific Effects of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Criminal Behavior in Men, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY, 36(2).
74. J. McCord, A Forty Year Prospective On Effects Of Child Abuse And Neglect, CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, VOL. 7 (1983).
75. R. Loeber & T. Dishion, Early predictors of male delinquency: A review, PSYCHOLOGICAL BULLETIN, 93 (1983).
76. J. Haapasalo & E. Pokela. Child-rearing and child abuse antecedents of criminality. AGGRESSION & VIOLENT BEHAIVOR 4(1) 107-127 1999.
77. K. Lyons-Ruth, Attachment Relationships Among Children With Aggressive Behavior Problems: The Role of Disorganized Early Attachment Patterns, JOURNAL OF CONSULTING AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY, VOL. 64(1) (1996).
78. K. Mack, et al., Reassessing the family-delinquency association: Do family type, family processes, and economic factors make a difference? JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE, 35 (2007).
79. D. Rosentstein & H. Horowitz, Adolescent Attachment and Psychopathology, JOURNAL OF CONSULTING AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY, VOL. 64(2) (1996).
80. See D.G. Dutton & S.D. Hart, Evidence for Long-Term, Specific Effects of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Criminal Behaviour in Men. INTERNATIONAL J. OFF. THERAPY & COMP. CRIMINOL. 36(2) 129-137 (1992).
81. See C.S. Widom, The Cycle of Violence,. Paper presented at Second National Conference on Violence convened by the AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF CRIMINOLOGY, Canberra, June 15-18, 1993.
82. See S.A. Mednick, W.F. Gabrielli, αmp; B. Hutchings, Generic influences in criminal convictions: Evidence from an adoption cohort. SCIENCE, 224 (1984).
83. R. Krueger, B. Hicks, C. Patrick, S. Carlson, W. Iacono, & M. McGue. Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 111(3) 2002.
84. W. Slutske, A. Heath, S. Dinwiddie, P. Madden, K. Bucholz, M. Dunne. Common genetic risk factors for conduct disorder and alcohol dependence. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 107 1998.
85. C. Widom, Childhood Victimization: Early Adversity, Later Psychopathology, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE JOURNAL (2000).
86. J. Lauritsen. The social ecology of violent victimization: Individual and contextual effects in the NCVS. JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY 17(1) (2001).
87. D. Farrington, Psychosocial Predictors of Adult Antisocial Personality and Criminal Convictions, BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE LAW, 18 (2000).
88. M. Chaiken. (2000). Violent Neighborhoods, violent kids. JUVENILE JUSTICE BULLETIN. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. OFFICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAM. OFFICE OF JUVENILE JUSTICE AND DELINQUENCY PREVENTION.
89. M. Lipsey & J. Derzon. Predictors of Violent or Serious Delinquency in Adolescence and Early Adulthood. In SERIOUS AND VIOLENT JUVENILE OFFENDERS: RISK FACTORS AND SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTIONS, edited by Rolf Loeber and David P. Farrington 1998.
90. R. Weeks & C. Widom. Self-reports of early childhood victimization among incarcerated adult male felons. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 13(3) 1998.
91. F. Esbensen, D. Huizinga, & S. Menard. Family context and criminal victimization in adolescence. YOUTH & SOCIETY. 31(2) 1999.
92. K. Fitzpatrick & J. Boldizar. The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African American youth. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 32 1992.
93. J. Patchin, B. Huebnerr, J. McCluskey, S. Varano, & T. Bynum. Exposure to community violence and childhood delinquency. CRIME & DELINQUENCY 52(2) 2006.
94. A. Scarpa. Community violence exposure in a young adult sample. Lifetime prevalence and socioemotional effects. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 16(1) 2001.
95. M. O'keefe. Adolescents' Exposure to community and school violence: Prevalence and behavioral correlates. JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH 20 1997 368-376.
96. A. Moses. Exposure to violence, depression, and hostility in a sample of inner city high school youth. JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE.22 21-32. 1999.
97. S. Buka, T. Stichick, I. Birdthistle, S. Melton, & J. Earls. Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ORTHOPSYCHIATRY 71(3) 2001.
98. D. Eitle & R. Turner. Exposure to community violence and young adult crime: The effects of witnessing violence, traumatic violence, traumatic victimization, and other stressful life events. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME & DELINQUENCY 39(2) 2002.
99. H. Saner & P. Ellickson. Concurrent risk factors for adolescent violence. JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH. 19 (1996).
100. R. Loeber, D. Pardini, D. Homish, E. Wei, D. Farrington, J. Creemers, A. Crawford, M. Stouthamer-Loeber, & S. Koehler. The prediction of violence and homicide in young men. JOURNAL OF CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY, 73(6) 2005.
101. See T.I. Herrenkohl, E. Maguin, K.G. Hill, D.J. Hawkins, R.D. Abbott, & R.F. Catalano, Developmental Risk Factors for Youth Violence, J. ADOLES. HEALTH (2000).
102. See H. Saner & P. Ellickson, Concurrent Risk Factors for Adolescent Violence, J. ADOLES. HEALTH (1996).
103. See H. Statton & D. Magnusson, Antisocial development: A holistic approach. DEV. & PSYCH. VOL. 9 (1996).
104. See R. Loeber & R. Pardini, The Prediction of Violence and Homicide in Young Men. J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCHOL. 73,6 (2005).
105. See D. Freedman & D. Hemenway, Precursors of lethal violence: A death row sample, SOC. SCI. & MED. 50 (2000).
106. See P. Litton, The "Abuse Excuse" in Capital Sentencing Trials: Is it Relevant to Responsibility, Punishment, or Neither? 42 AM. CRIM. L. REV. 1027 (2005).
107. See C. Haney, The Social Context of Capital Murder: Social Histories and the Logic of Mitigation, 35 SANTA CLARA L. REV. 547 (1995). Id. at 593.
108. C. Haney, Violence and the Capital Jury: Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement and the Impulse to Condemn Death,. 49 STAN. L. REV. 1447.
109. C. Agaibi & J. Wilson. Trauma, PTSD, and resilience. TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 6(3) 2005.
110. G. Richardson. The metatheory of resilience and resiliency. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 58(3) 2002.
111. Agaibi & Wilson. 83 N. Garmezy. Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. AMERICAN BEHAVIOR SCIENTIST 34(4) 1991.
112. D. Gorman-Smith, D. Henry, & P. Tolan. Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY 33(3) 2004.
113. W. Kliewer, J. Cunningham, R.Diehl, K. Parrish, J. Walker, C. Atiyeh, B. Neace, L. Duncan, K. Taylor, & R. Mejia. Violence exposure and adjustment in inner-city youth: Child and caregiver emotion regulation skill, caregiver-child relationship quality, and neighborhood cohesion as protective factor. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY 33(3) 2004.
114. S. Luthar & A. Goldstein. Children's exposure to community violence: Implications for understanding risk and resilience. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY 33(3) 2004.
115. D. Fergusson, L. Horwood, & M. Lynskey. The childhoods of multiple problem adolescents: A 15-year longitudinal study. JOURNAL OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY & PSYCHIATRY, 35 1123-1140.
116. See Crocker, supra note 31 at 1192.
117. See John Blume & Pamela Blume Leonard, Capital Cases: Principles of Developing and Presenting Mental Health Evidence in Criminal Cases, 24 CHAMPION 63 (2000).
118. See Daniel L. Payne, Building the Case for Life: A Mitigation Specialist as a Necessity and a Matter of Right, 16 CAP. DEF. J. 43(2003).
119. See The American Bar Association Guidelines for the Appointment and Performance of Defense Counsel in Death Penalty Cases (rev. ed. 2003).
120. Lyon supra note xxxi.
121. See S.P. Garvey. Aggravation and mitigation in capital cases: What do jurors think? COLUM. LAW REV. 98, 1538-1576 (1998).
122. See C. Haney, Violence and the Capital Jury: Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement and the Impulse to Condemn to Death, 49 STAN. L. REV. 447 (1997).
123. Id. See Deana Dorman Logan, From Abused child To Killer: Positing Links In The Chain, CHAMPION, JAN/FEB (1992).
124. See Haney, supra note 41.
125. See Theodore Eisenberg & Martin T. Wells, Deadly Confusion: Juror Instructions in Capital Cases, 79 CORNELL L. REV. (1993).
126. See Mark D. Cunningham & Thomas J. Reidy, Integrating Base Rate Data in Violence Risk Assessments at Capital Sentencing, 16 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 71 (1998).
127. See Ursula Bentele & William J. Bowers, How Jurors Decide on Death: Guilt is Overwhelming; Aggravation Requires Death: And Mitigation is No Excuse. 66 BROOKLYN L. REV. 1011 (2001).
128. Tuilaepa v. California, 512 U.S. 967 (1994).
129. In dissent, Justice Blackmun stated that jurors do not know what to make of aggravating and mitigating factors. J. Frank & B. Appelgate. Assessing juror understanding of capital-sentencing instructions. CRIME & DELINQUENCY 44(3) 1998.
130. See M.E. Barnett, S.L. Brodsky, & C.M. Davis, When mitigation evidence makes a difference: Effects of Psychological Mitigating Evidence on Sentencing decision capital trials. BEHAV. SCI. & L. 22 (2004).
131. See J.G. Edersheim & J.C. Beck, Commentary: Expert Testimony as a Potential Asset in Defense of Capital Sentencing Cases, J. AM. ACAD. PSYCH. L. 33,4 (2005).
132. J.H. Montgomery, J.R. Ciccone, S.P.Garvey, & T. Eisenberg, Expert Testimony in Capital Sentencing: Juror Responses, J. AM. ACAD. PSYCH. L. 33, 5 (2005).
133. Crocker, supra note 13.
134. Tennard v. Dretke.
135. South Carolina v.Gathers, 490 U.S. 80 (1989).
136. Crocker supra note 13.
137. Boyde v. California, 494 U.S. 370 (1990).
138. Crocker supra note 13.
139. See Scott E. Sunby, The Jury as Critic: An Empirical Look at How Capital Juries Perceive Expert and Lay Testimony, 83 VA. L. REV. 1109 (1997).
140. Burger v. Kemp, 483 U.S. 776 (1987).
141. Darden v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 168 (1986).
142. See S. P. Harvey, Aggravation and mitigation in capital cases: What do jurors think? COLUM. L. REV. 98 (1998).
143. See Crocker, supra note 31 at 1184.
144. See Haney, supra note 41, at 561.
145. See Crocker, supra note 31 at 1176.
146. See CRAIG HANEY, DEATH BY DESIGN: CAPITAL PUNISHMENT AS A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SYSTEM (2005).