The origins of architecture, after de Chirico

Art History

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 78-99

  Mical, Thomas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

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EID: 61249304095     PISSN: 01416790     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8365.d01-3     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. The 'architectural subject' is a double-figure that deliberately superimposes the 'subject' constructed through perspectivai representation with the architecture that is the 'subject' of representation in de Chirico's work. The inclusive dates of the 'metaphysical' painting corresponds to the conventional distinction, but the actual parameters included in this analysis begin with the appearance of the architectural subject matter until its dissipation in the later postwar works. In writing this essay, I have avoided utilizing specific examples or illustrations in favour of identifying overarching themes as a basis for developing a reading of the 'architectural figurations of eternal recurrence'. Though there is some question of the exact number and identity of the body of work comprising de Chirico's metaphysical period, examples are well documented in Paolo Baldacchi's De Chirico: The Metaphysical Period, 1888-1919, Boston, 1997.
2. The 'Stimmung' of Nietzschean classicism, described by de Chirico as 'atmosphere in the moral sense', profoundly influenced his reading of the classical figures and representation. 'The true novelty discovered by this philosopher . a strange and profound poetry, infinitely mysterious and solitary, which is based on the Stimmung (I use this very effective German word which could be translated as atmosphere in the moral sense) .' Giorgio De Chirico, The Memoirs of Giorgio De Chirico, trans. Margaret Crosland, New York, 1994, p. 55.
3. 'Signifier (building) signifies (type) in a mimetic relation whose telos is truth. What classicism fails or refuses to acknowledge is that true form or the transcendental signified is really a fiction . Nietzsche insists that truth is an illusion that has forgotten it is an illusion'. Mark C. Taylor, 'Nuclear Architecture', in Assemblage - A Critical Journal of Architecture and Design Culture: 11, Cambridge, Mass., April 1990, p. 11. Using Nietzschean classicism to relocate the post-structuralist project of architecture as a subversion of the modern through the classical, Taylor defines a problematic that de Chirico's work contributes to understanding.
4. 'De Chirico's early education was more philosophical than pictorial. above all Nietzsche. through his philosophers and lengthy, silent experimentation, de Chirico discovered his method of the enigma.' Maurizio Fagiolo Dell'Arco, 'De Chirico in Paris, 1911-1915', in William Rubin (ed.), De Chirico: Essays, New York, 1982, p. 12.
5. De Chirico, in private correspondence to Fritz Gratz. The full citation of this letter is translated in Paolo Baldacci, 'The Function of Nietzsche's Thought in de Chirico's Art', in Alexandre Kostka and Irving Wohlfarth (eds), Nietzsche and 'An Architecture of Our Minds', Los Angeles, CA, 1999, p. 92.
6. Uwe M. Schneede, 'Proto-Surrealism - "Disquieting Dream Reality'" in Surrealism, trans. Maria Pelikan. New York, 1973, p. 21.
7. The source of de Chirico's reading list is Ivor Davies, 'Giorgio de Chirico: the sources of metaphysical painting in Schopenhauer and Nietzsche' in Art International, vol. 26/1, Jan-Mar 1983, pp. 53-60.
8. Giorgio De Chirico, 'Some Perspectives on My Art', in Hebdomeros, trans. Margaret Crosland, London, 1968, p. 252.
9. Michel Foucault, 'Nietzsche, Genealogy, History', in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice, Ithaca, 1977, p. 140.
10. Manfredo Tafuri, The Sphere and the Labyrinth, Cambridge, Mass., 1987 [1980], pp. 3-4.
11. Eric Blondel, Nietzsche: The Body and Culture, trans. Seán Hand, Stanford, 1991, p. 86.
12. Blondel, Nietzsche, p. 258.
13. Tafuri, The Sphere and Labyrinth, p. 21.
14. Nietzsche, The Dawn, section 44
15. cited in Gianni Vattimo, 'The End of Modernity: The End of the Project', in Architecture and Philosophy, issue of Architectural Design, December 1990, pp. 74-7.
16. Concerning this event, dell'Arco writes 'herein lies the whole meaning of Metaphysical art: to see something and go beyond it.' Dell'Arco, 'De Chirico in Paris, 1911-1915', p. 11. This doubling of vision, one corporal and one 'other' is telling. Hal Foster writes of this event: 'however enigmatic, this scene has its own sense. The space of the piazza is transformed by two temporalities that coexist within it: an event of "not the first time" .' that triggers the memory of 'the first time'.' though he concludes with 'a structure characteristic of deferred action in primal fantasy . here de Chirico rewrites a traumatic initiation into sexuality into an origin myth of art.'
17. Hal Foster, 'Convulsive Identity', in Compulsive Beauty, Cambridge, Mass., 1990, p. 64. Though this assertion of two temporalities appears correct, the excessive Freudian reading has no convincing support in de Chirico's writings, where Nietzsche is always present.
18. Foucault, Language, Counter-Memory, Practice, p. 143.
19. Jacques Derrida, Disseminations, Chicago, 1991, p. 167
20. quoted in Rodolphe Gasché, The Tain of the Mirror, Cambridge, Mass., 1986, p. 210.
21. Mark C. Taylor, Alterity, Chicago, 1987, p. 246.
22. For a thorough description of the absent body, see Drew Leder, The Absent Body, Chicago, 1990.
23. 'Unbearable lightness' is Kundera's term for bodies not selected to return in Nietzsche's eternal recurrence. See Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, New York, 1984, pp. 3-7. The Nietzschean project of denying metaphysics, and De Chirico's troping of the term, would situate this 'unbearable lightness' as an alterity in the visible realm. The image of the distant or alterior bodies make this separation legible, in that they become spectral, or in Blanchot's terminology, 'phantasmic'.
24. Giorgio De Chirico, 'Meditations of A Painter' (1912), in Herschel B. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art, Berkeley, CA, 1968, pp. 397-8.
25. The question of the style of the fragment is contingent upon its distinction from its context, its imperviousness to the changes in context. This condition is perhaps a consequence of the Nietzschean influence on De Chirico, in that Nietzsche's style of writing appears fragmentary, but the aphorisms are sequenced in the context of a larger issue. The scope of the larger issue is to be inferred by the blank spaces between the pieces of writing. Contrast this with Nehemas, citing the Derridean fragment and style as other than Nietzsche's: '. Derrida claims that precisely because they lack a context, fragments also lack a style, for style depends on the existence of interconnections of pieces of language that, insofar as they are interconnected, are no longer fragments in his sense.' Alexander Nehemas, Nietzsche: Life as Literature. Cambridge, Mass., 1985, p. 17.
26. De Chirico's style, broadly defined, is unmistakable for its dream-like clarity and haunting effect, as if the ideal Nietzschean body returned as a phantasmic body. Simplistic attempts to define de Chirico's style frequently invoke the image of the body as illustrative, without engaging the possibility that the body itself is style. For a sustained discussion of the body as style, see Blondel, Nietzsche: The Body and Culture, pp. 108-13.
27. Berel Lang (ed.), The Concept of Style, Philadelphia, 1979, p. 178.
28. Atomistically conceived as the aesthetic equivalent of the linguistic phoneme or morpheme. See Lang, The Concept of Style, p. 175.
29. Trypho, cited and translated in P. B. Rollinson, Classical Theories of Allegory and Christian Culture, Pittsburgh, PA, 1991, p. 127.
30. Style, historically derived from the original stylet, a writing instrument that cuts or inscribes the soft surface, as in cuneiform texts; Lang articulates this linguistic origin of style in writing: 'enough is known in any event of its metonymic derivation from the stylus, an instrument for inscribing, to suggest the historical pressures that yielded the concept - the relation between writing instrument and authorial hand, on the one side, and the shaped expression, on the other.' (Lang, Looking for the Styleme, p. 176.)
31. In Nietzsche, the stylet operates as both writing and cutting - see Michael Newman, 'The Trace of Traume: Blindness, Testimony and the Gaze in Blanchot and Derrida', in Maurice Blanchot: The Demand of Writing, ed. Carolyn Bailey Gill, New York, 1996 p. 161.
32. See also Jacques Derrida on Nietzsche's style, as spur, éperon, stylate throughout Jacques Derrida, Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles, trans. Barbara Harlow, Chicago, 1979.
33. Taylor, Alterity, p. 250.
34. Maurice Blanchot, The Infinite Conversation, trans. Susan Hanson, Minneapolis, 1993, p. 167.
35. Lycette Nelson, 'Maurice Blanchot: The Fragment and the Whole', unpublished PhD dissertation, SUNY-Buffalo, 1992, p. 58
36. Nelson, 'Blanchot', p. 47.
37. Blanchot, The Infinite Conversation, p. 159.
38. Blanchot, The Step Not Beyond, Albany, 1992, p. 52.
39. These comments were made in relation to a single painting, and framed within his particular Freudian revisionist agenda. In de Chirico's The Seer the disturbing figure of the body situated within a perspective is represented in eyeless reflection of a perspective-within-perspective (Foster, Compulsive Beauty, p. 67).
40. Nelson, 'Maurice Blanchot: The Fragment and the Whole', p. 58.
41. Rodolphe Gasché, "Ecce Homo or the Written Body,' in Laurence A. Rickeis (ed.), Looking After Nietzsche, Albany, NY, 1990, p. 119.
42. George Hersey's thesis in The Lost Meaning of Classical Architecture, Cambridge, Mass., 1988, is used here to clarify the relation between the fragmentary body, the rhetoric of Nietzsche and De Chirico, and the style of the body as the foundation of Western architecture, that in De Chirico, returns in the body's tendency towards architecture (in representation).
43. The status of sacrifice, history and myth as 'false' origins in classical Greek culture is described in Dennis D. Hughes, 'Sacrifice and Ritual Killing', in Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece, New York, 1991, pp. 1-12, 90. It would be more accurately described as a cross-troping in language condensed around an un-historical violent event that masks the absence of an origin. The impossibility of knowing or saying the first sacrifice, first myth, of first event of history is obvious; these three cultural formations, with their unknowable origins, are intersected in the narrative unearthed in Hersey's research.
44. For a simple example of the literal evidence of the sacrificial origin of architecture in de Chirico's work, see the repetition of the unique form of the 'engaged' / embedded column, phantasmic in its ability to disappear entirely into the mass of the architectural form, repeated in The Joys and Enigmas of a Strange Hour and The Anguish of Departure. Hersey, in The Lost Meaning of Classical Architecture, pp. 54-67, describes the evidence for the body's disappearance into architecture in the trope of the column. The disappearance proposed in this research is of a grander ('metaphysical') scale.
45. The topic has received considerable research attention, and conflicting interpretations. See E.R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, Berkeley, CA, 1951, pp. 276-8, for an interpretation of the historical evidence in Plutarch and primary sources, and also an interpretation derived from Frazer.
46. Burkert's Homo Necans is a invaluable and influential interpretation of sacrifice as the sacrifice of death for life. The first four essays in The Cuisine of Sacrifice Among the Greeks, eds Marcel Detienne and Jean-Pierre Vernant, trans. Paula Wissing, Chicago, 1989, offer the most contemporary interpretations of the meaning of the sacrificial act. Hersey briefly acknowledges the influence of the vast research on the topic, but the thesis of its place as the origin of classical architectural form and language is original.
47. Ruth Padel, In and Out of the Mind: Greek Images of the Tragic Self, Princeton, 1992, p. 16.
48. See also the similarities of Meuli's theory of the reconstructed animals of sacrifice in Hughes, 'Sacrifice and Ritual Killing', in Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece, pp. 4-5.
49. 'Yet the body that is dismembered according to the strict rules of carving reveals the former cohesion of life in a primary state . its movement back and forth from life to death, informs the philosopher's image. The secret heart of sacrifice beats deep within the Greek imagination. The body must be dismantled, but according to recognized steps that will gradually transform it .,' Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, 'Greek Animals: Toward a Typology of Edible Animals', in Detienne and Vernant (eds), The Cuisine of Sacrifice Among the Greeks, p. 101.
50. Marcel Detienne, 'The Feast of Wolves or the Impossible City' in Detienne and Vernant (eds), The Cuisine of Sacrifice Among the Greeks, pp. 162-3, for a description of the sacrifice in the Apollonian oracle of Delphi.
51. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, p. 277, interpreting Frazer in the first instance and citing Euripides in the second.
52. John Knesl, 'Architecture and Laughter', in Architecture and the Body, New York, 1988, n.p.
53. For an examination of this condensation of distance in the related discourse of the funerary, see George Teyssot, 'Fragments of Funerary Discourse', Lotus International, no. 38, 1983, p. 14.
54. Also, for a more general history of the funerary discourse in classical Greek culture and images, see Robert Garland, The Greek Way of Death, Ithaca, 1985.
55. Marcel Detienne identifies this distance between mortals and men in the cult of Dionysus in Dionysus At Large, trans. Arthur Goldhammer, Cambridge, Mass., 1989, p. 62.
56. Dennis Hollier, Against Architecture: The Writings of Georges Bataille, Cambridge, Mass., 1989, p. 166.
57. Friedrich Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, Cambridge and New York, 1986, section 218. As stated previously, this book was crucial in De Chirico's development in influencing the 'metaphysical' paintings.
58. The discussion of Nietzsche and classicism is a vast topic; his re-presentation of the classical ideal, especially its grand style, operates within his tropical theory of language, in which the body and its parts are enmeshed in a network of interconnected meanings and figures of speech. The Nietzschean body is the primary figure of the classical ideal - see Blondel, Nietzsche: The Body and Culture, for an effort to situate this ideal as the motivator of his 'untimely' modern philosophy.
59. Onians first identifies the relation between trophies and tropes, in R.B. Onians, The Origins of European Thought, about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time, and Fate, Cambridge, 1988 (1951), p. 375.
60. See also the discussion of the trope as literary figure in Nietzsche's language explored in Paul de Man, Allegories of Reading, New Haven and London, 1979, p. 105.
61. This technique recurs primarily in the fragments of Heraclitus's writings. In Heraclitus, the join or seam between tropes is intended to produce a harmony that conceals the possibility of two or more interpretations. See C.H. Kahn, The Art and Thought of Heraclitus, Cambridge, 1979, p. 196 for an examination of this. 67 Ostensibly a description of the role of the image in Blanchot's thinking, it here applies as a fragmentary critique of the Nietzschean veil of classical architecture. See Newman, 'The Trace of Traume: Blindness, Testimony and the Gaze in Blanchot and Derrida', p. 157.
62. This reading of the classical cannon is common. See, for example, Taylor's description of the theory, grammar, and persistence of classicism in 'Nuclear Architecture', p. 11. Following the Nietzschean agon between beauty and dread in the classical, Taylor adds: 'The terrifying between is not only unseeable, it is also unspeakable. The beauty of classical architecture is constructed to repress "the negative pleasure" of terror' (p. 17). For a rational and bloodless structural linguistic variant of classical grammar
63. see A. Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre, Classical Architecture: The Poetics of Order, Cambridge, Mass., c. 1986. De Chirico's classicism, it must be remembered, sustains these classical methods and origins, but substitutes a deliberately disturbing modern set of images, creating the polyvalence of sacrificial images that are polyvalent in their epochs, not merely their meanings. Modern and classical, their two temporalities are in agonized coexistence.
64. The related 'inevitable interiority of exteriority', as a self-sacrifice of identity, for the sacrificed body, is discussed in Mark C. Taylor, Erring: a Postmodern A/theology, Chicago, 1984, p. 144.
65. The momentary time of the mortal body is terminated in sacrifice, and the eternal time of the gods erupts into the fractured remnants of the body. This attempt to invoke and control eternity is seen in the re-assemblage of the fragmentary body, most explicitly when it becomes the stone body or its architectural double. De Chirico's term vividly duplicates this scene. See de Chirico, 'Eluard Manuscript' in Hebdomeros, p. 193.
66. This representation of architecture may operate as infinite: 'infinite representation is the object of a double discourse: that of properties, and that of essences', Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, trans. Paul Patton, New York, 1994 (1968), p. 49. The possibility of essences is precluded by de Chirico's Nietzschean 'metaphysical' belief, and the double discourse of body and architecture would therefore be closer to the intersection of the discourse of properties and the discourse of absences.
67. Nietzsche is the source here; for a description of destruction as a means of coming to eternalization, see Joan Stambaugh, The Problem of Time in Nietzsche, trans. John F. Humphrey, Lewisburg, 1987, p. 186.
68. also Newman, 'The Trace of Traume: Blindness, Testimony and the Gaze in Blanchot and Derrida', p. 166.
69. Vincent Scully, The Earth, the Temple, and the Gods: Greek Sacred Architecture, New Haven and London, 1962, p. 212. This description of the ethos of the classical will return in this research without citation, as the words will take on their own significance in relation to de Chirico's Nietzschean classicism.
70. Denis Hollier, 'From Beyond Hegel to Nietzsche's Absence', in Leslie Anne Boldt-Irons (ed.), On Bataille: Critical Essays, Albany, NY, 1995, p. 69.
71. Remember Nietzsche's distinction between remembering and forgetting in the act of living (see Nietzsche, 'The Use and Abuse of History for Life', section 1, Untimely Meditations, Cambridge and New York, 1983). The forgetting of the origin of classical architectural form does not end the presence of the origin; it shifts it outside memory, into forgetting, therefore into its effect - where it may be remembered again.
72. He continues: 'This dangerous incoherence is repeated by the reader of Nietzsche's essay. An interpretation of it can never be clear or complete. The laws of forgetting and of self-mutilation apply to any reader as well as to the author. Insofar as he thinks he is clear, distinct, and coherent reading of the essay, he has forgotten some important part of it. He too is taking bare metal as valid coin, or what is worse, taking bare metal as bare metal, as the naked truth behind illusion.' The powerful effect of Nietzsche's writing style, and its influence on de Chirico's style/me, is accurately described here. See J. Hillis Miller, 'Dismembering and Disremembering in Nietzsche's "On truth and Lies" in a Nonmoral Sense', Why Nietzsche Now? Bloomington, 1985, pp. 41-54.
73. Nietzsche, 'The Use and Abuse of History for Life', section 1.
74. This citation, from a different context, accurately situates the operation of thought as bodily processes. See Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain, New York, 1985, p. 110.
75. The body central position in Nietzsche's 'epistemology', as interpreter and arbiter of discrete impulses, is here rendered as an historical body in that the processes of remembering and forgetting exist prior to thinking, and the process of remembering constructs man as an historical being. See Nietzsche, The Use and Abuse of History for Life, New York, 1st edn (1997), section 1. The image of memories as eruptions deliberately evokes the violent origin of architectural memory in sacrifice, and is instrumental in Bataille's writings of the body as 'eruptive'. Foster also implicates this in his use of the term 'convulsive' to describe the form of identity of the body in de Chirico. See Foster, 'Convulsive Identity'. In all these schemas, the body as the site of the eruption of memory, and its ability to distress make alterior the identity chained to the body is clear.
76. J. Hillis Miller, 'Dismembering and Dis(re)membering', p. 50.
77. Pierre Klossowski, Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle, trans. Daniel W. Smith, Chicago, 1997, p. 256.
78. Nietzsche, cited in Babette E. Babich, Nietzsche's Philosophy of Science, Albany, NY, 1994, p. 294, but implicated in this entire research.
79. This origin of art is from Paul de Man, Blindness and Insight, Minneapolis, 1983, pp. 66-7, though it is a very old idea.
80. Hollier, Against Architecture, p. 55.
81. Nietzsche, writing of the necessity of incompletion in art, turns towards this precedent: 'incompleteness as an artistic stimulation - incompletion is often more effective than completeness, especially in eulogies . completion has a weakening effect.' Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, section 199.
82. Christopher Fynsk, 'Crossing the Threshold: On "Literature and the Right to Death",' in Maurice Blanchot: The Demand of Writing, ed. Carolyn Bailey Gill, New York, 1996, p. 73.
83. Rodolphe Gasché, 'The Felicities of Paradox,' in Gill (ed.), Maurice Blanchot: The Demand of Writing, p. 52.
84. Maurice Blanchot, The Gaze of Orpheus, Barrytown, N.Y., 1981, p. 43.
85. Taylor, Erring, p. 151.
86. Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, p. 112.
87. Deleuze here utilizes Blanchot's writing about death within language to understand the death within repetition. He cites Blanchot on the second aspect of death, the impersonal that is the risk of the personal: 'it is inevitable but inaccessible death; it is the abyss of the present, time without a present, with which I have no relationships; it is toward which I cannot go forth, for in it I do not die, I have fallen from the power to die. In it they die, they do not cease, and they do not finish dying .' (Maurice Blanchot, The Space of Literature, trans. Ann Smock, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1982, pp. 106, 154-5.
88. De Chirico, 'Eluard Manuscript' in Hebdomeros, p. 186.
89. The full Blanchot citation concerns specifically the work of art 'in the work of art the gods speak, in the temple the gods dwell, but disguised, but absent . the work utters the gods, but utters them as unutterable, it is the presence of the absence of the gods and, in this absence, it tends to become itself present, to become no longer Zeus, but a statue . and when the gods are overthrown, the temple does not disappear with them, but rather it begins to appear, it reveals itself by continuing to be what before it was only unknown to itself: the dwelling-place of the absence of the gods' (Blanchot, cited without reference in Teysott, 'Fragments of a Funerary Discourse', p. 13). The language of this text recalls clearly the 'metaphysical' works of de Chirico.
90. Teyssot, 'Fragments of a Funerary Discourse', p. 6.
91. Erich Heller, 'Nietzsche's Terrors: Time and the Inarticulate' in The Importance of Nietzsche, Chicago, 1988, p. 178.
92. See Nicole Loraux, Tragic Ways of Killing a Woman, Cambridge, Mass., 1987, p. 49.
93. The arch duplicates the Nietzschean gateway as an enigma of fatality, and is here always present in De Chirico's representations of architecture. Outside the constraints of functionalism, they propose a compelling question of their signification, and death as a type is intended to describe this network of relations. Kofman proposes a reading of Nietzschean (monumental) history that replaces the 'evolutionary' model of history with a 'typological' one utilizing Nietzsche's privileging of the Presocratic philosophers: 'the Presocratics belong to a rare type; they are irreducible to any other. To reconstitute their image, it is best to "paper the walls with them a thousand times".' (Sarah Kofman, 'Metaphor, Symbol, Metamorphosis' in The New Nietzsche, Cambridge, Mass., 1985 (1977), p. 212. De Chirico's history is here also typological, and death is the originary apparatus.
94. Aldo Rossi, A Scientific Autobiography, trans. Lawrence Venuti, Cambridge, Mass., 1981, p. 2.
95. See Giorgio Grassi, Architettura, Lingua Morta: Architecture, Dead Language, Milan, 1988, p. 135.
96. This observation is from James Thrall Soby, The Early Chirico, New York, 1941, p. 38; it is left unexplored in the text, and occurs in relation to the painting Melancholy of Departure. This effect is not localized to this painting, but the majority of de Chirico's work.
97. Georges Bataille, Visions of Excess. Selected Writings, 1927-1939, trans. Allan Stoekl, with Carl R. Lovitt and Donald M. Leslie, Jr, ed. Allan Stoekl, Minneapolis, 1985, p. 216.
98. See Sarah Kofman, Nietzsche and Metaphor, trans. Duncan Large, Stanford, 1993, pp. 66-7.
99. Nietzsche uses the metaphoric Roman columbarium to illustrate the complete exhaustion of logical systems of classification, contra his perspectivism: 'Whereas each perceptual metaphor is individual and without equals and is therefore able to elude all classification, the great edifice of concepts displays the rigid regularity of a Roman columbarium and exhales in logic that strength and coolness which is characteristic of mathematics. Anyone who has felt this cool breath will hardly believe that even the concept . is merely the residue of a metaphor, and that the illusion which is involved in the artistic transferal of a nerve stimulus into images is, if not the mother, then the grandmother of every single concept.' Nietzsche, Philosophy and Truth, p. 84
100. cited and translated in Kofman, Nietzsche and Metaphor, p. 68.
101. De Chirico, correspondence with Gartz, in Paolo Baldacchi, 'The Function of Nietzsche's Thought in de Chirico's Art', in Kostka and Wohlfarth, Nietzsche and 'An Architecture of Our Minds, p. 93.
102. Maudemarie Clark, Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy, Cambridge, 1990, p. 279.
103. Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, The Subject of Philosophy, trans. Thomas Trezise, Minneapolis, 1993, p. 4. Lacoue-Labarthe is here examining the Hegelian notion of the end of history through the critique of Nietzsche, specifically by undercutting the 'metaphysical' assumptions in teleological history. Nietzsche's eternal recurrence erodes the sanctity of origin and end, positing them as possible identities.