Pure individualism: The idea of non-priestly purity in Ancient Judaism

Journal for the Study of Judaism

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 176-202

  Regev, Eyal ^a  

^a BAR ILAN UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 61249248468     PISSN: 00472212     EISSN: 15700631     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157006300X00099     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. ' G. Alon, "The Bounds of the Laws of Levitical Cleanness," in: idem, Jews, Judaism and the Classical World (tr. I. Abrahams) (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1977) 190-234.
2. See: A. Buchler, Der Galildische 'Am-Ha'ares des zweiten Jahrhunderts (Wien 1906; repr. Hildelsheim 1968))
3. See especially, JJ Neusner, 7he Rabbinic Traditions about the Pharisees before 70 (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1971) 3.288ff.
4. idem, From Politics to Piety (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Halll 1973) 67ff.
5. cf. idem, The Idea of Purity in Ancient Judaism (Studies m Judaism in Late Antiquity 1; Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1973)) esp. 65ff.
6. A. Oppenheimer, The 'Am Ha-Aretz (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1977))
7. E.P. Sanders, "Did the Pharisees Eat their Ordinary Food in Purity?," in: idem, Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishna (London and Philadelphia: SCM and Trinity, 1990)134-254.
8. J.D.G. Dunn, "Pharisees, Sinners, and Jesus," in: The Social World of Formative Christianity and Judaism (eds. J. Neusner et al.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988) 264-289;
9. H.K. Harrington, "Did the Pharisees Eat Ordinary Food in a State of Ritual Purity?," JSJ 26 (1995) 42-54;
10. 1 Jesu (WUNT 11/52;
11. Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr-Siebeck, 1993) 268-74;
12. M. Hengel and R. Deines, "E.P. Sanders' 'Common Judaism', Jesus, and the Pharisees," JTS 46 (1995) esp. 41-51. 6 Tob. 2:9 (codex S).
13. See: C.A. Moore, Tobit, A New Transation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 40A; New York: Doubleday, 1996) 126, 128 and bibliography. ' Jud. 12:6-10.
14. See: C.A. Moore, Judith, New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 40; New York: Doubleday, 1985) 217-19;
15. See: G. Alon, "The Levitical Uncleanness of Gentiles," Jew, Judaism and the Classical World, 146-189;
16. J. Klawans, "Notions of Gentile Impurity in Ancient Judaism," AJS Review 20 (1995) 285-312.
17. Cf. M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974) 1.52ff.
18. Cf. Sanders, Jewish Law, 231, 260.
19. For Judith see: G.VV.E. Nickelsburg, "Stories of Biblical and Early Post-Biblical Times," in: Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period (ed. M.E. Stone; CRINT 2/II; Assen-Phiiadelphia: Van Gorcum-Fortress, 1984) 50f.
20. For Ps. Aristeas and Sib. Or. see Sanders, Jewish Law, 335, n. 3.
21. D. Boyarin, Carnal Israell Reading Sex in Talmudic Culture (Berkely, Los Angeles, and London: Universiiy of California, 1993) 4 with n. 6;
22. PJ. Tomson, "Purity in Ancient Diaspora Synagogues and in the Corinthian Church," Miinstemn Judaistische Studien 3 (forthcoming)) My thanks to Prof. Tomson for making his paper available to me prior to its publication.
23. see: R. Reich, "Synagogue and Ritual Bath during the Second Temple and the Period of the Mishna and Talmud," in: Synagogues in Antiquity (eds. A. Kasher et al.; Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben Zvi, 1987) 205-12;
24. Sanders, Jewish Law, 259.
25. Cf. Alon, "The Bounds," 195, 201-3.
26. I.L. Levine, "The Second Temple Synagogue: The Formative Years," in idem: (ed.), Tlie Synagogue in Late Antiquity (Philadelphia: The American School of Oriental Research, 1987) 7-31;
27. idem, "The Nature and Origin of the Synagogue Reconsidered," JBL 115 (1996) 425-48.
28. For purity and liturgy see also Tomson, "Purity in Ancient Diaspora Synagogues."
29. For Qumran, see the prayer that was said after ablution: E. Eshel, "4Q414 Fragment 2: Purification of a Corpse-Contaminated Person," in: Legal Textt and Legal Issues (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah XXIII; eds. M. Bernstein et al.; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997) 3-10. '2 Temple Scroll, 50:13-16.
30. See: J. Milgrom, "Studies in the Temple Scroll," JBL 97 (1978) 512-18;
31. idem, Leviticus 1-16 (AB 3; New York: Doubleday, 1991) 968-76;
32. J.M. Baumgarten, "The Purification Rituals in DJD 7," in: The Dead Sea Scrolls, Forty Years of Research (eds. D. Dimant & U. Rappaport; Leiden: Magnes & Yad Izhak Ben Zvi, 19923 199-209. Specc Leg. 3. 206, 3.63, respectively.
33. Cf. Josephus' Against Apion, 2.199, 203.
34. For Hillel and Shammai see: E. Schiirer, The History of tlie Jewish Peopll in the Time of Jesus Christ (175 BC-135 AD) (ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, & M. Black; Edinburgh: Clark, 1979) 2.363-367.
35. For the dispute concerning handwashing see m. Ber. 8:2.
36. For the washing of the hands see also, Alon "The Bounds," 222ff., but compare, Sanders, Jewish Law, 228fF. and passim. For the controversies of the Schools, see: t. Sabb. 1:15 (ed. Lieberman, 4); Oppenheimer, 87f., 121, 156f.
37. See: E. Regev, "The Use of Stone Vessels at the End of the Second Temple Period," in: Judea & Samaria Research Studies, Proceeding of the 6th Annuaa Meeting-1996
38. Deines, Judische Steinefdsse, 192-94.
39. Cf. J.M. Cahill, "The Chalk Assemblagee of the Persian/Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods," Excavations at the Ciry of Davii 1978-1985, III, Stratigraphicall Environmental, and Other Reports, Qedee 33 (eds. A. de Groot and D.T. Ariel; Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1992) 190-98;
40. see Regev, "The Use of Stone Vessels," 83-89.
41. For the archaeological findings, see Cahill, "The Chalk Assemblages," 190-274, and bibliogra phy; Deines, Jiidische Ste,nefdsse, 71-111.
42. see Deines, Jiidische Steinefdsse, 115-65.
43. D. Adan-Bayewitz and M. Aviam, "Iotapata, Josephus, and the siege of 67: pre liminary report on the 1992-4 seasons," journal of Romaa Archaeology 10 (1997) 164.
44. For the Cana episode, see also: K. Hanhart, "The Structure of John I 35-IV 54," in: Studies in John, Presented to Professor Dr. JJf. Sevenster. . . (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970) 38ff. However, in this case, John probably refers to larger Kallal vessells
45. Y. Magen, "Kalandia-A Vineyard Farm and Winery of Second Temple Times," Qadmoniot 17 (1984) 61-71 (in Hebrew);
46. B. Mazar, "The Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem Near the Temple Mount-Second Preliminary Report, 1969-70 Seasons," EI 10 (1971)) 28, fig. 17. (in Hebrew).
47. R. de Vaux, "Les grottes de Muraba'at et leurs documents, rapport preliminaire," RB 69 (1953) 255, 258f.
48. Y. Yadin, The Finds from the Bar-Kokhba Period in the "Cave of Letters" (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1963) 119-121.
49. For the discussions of non-priestly purity laws after the revolt, in the generation of Usha, see A. Aderet, From Destruction to Reconstruction (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1990) 256ff. 335ff. (in Hebrew), and cf. n. 48.
50. H. Eshel, "CD XII:15-17 and the Stone Vessels Found at Qumran," in: 77K Damascus Document: A Centennial Discovery, the Third Orion International Symposium (eds. J.M. Baumgarten, E.G. Chazon and A. Pinmck) (EJ. Brill: Leiden, 2000), 45-52.
51. Cf. Deines, 3udischh Steinefasse, 186-92.
52. See: R. Reich, Miqwa'ot (Jewish Ritual Immersion Bathss in Eretz-Israel in the Second Temple and the Mishna and Talmud Periods, Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University (Jerusalem, 1990) (in Hebrew).
53. M. Kon, The Tombb of the Kings (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1947) 30-38, Pis. III-IV (in Hebrew)
54. R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, 'Jewish Funerary Costumes during the Second Temple Period in Light of the Excavations at the Jericho Necropolis," PEQ l15 (1983) 112.
55. Reich, Miqwa'ot 243-45, 277;
56. D. Amit, "Ritual Baths (Mikva'ot) from the Second Temple Period in the Hebron Mountains," in: Judea & Samaria Research Studies, Proceeding of the 3th Annuaa Meeting-1993 (ed. Y. Eshel: Kedumim-Ariel: The Research Institute, The College of Judea & Samaria, 1994) 180-85 (in Hebrew)
57. idem, Miqwa'ot Taliara miMei Bayii Shenn be-Har Hevron, MA diss., The Hebrew University (Jerusallm 1996)) 50f. (in Hebrew)
58. B. Ziso, 77K Necropolis of Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period-New Discoverier 1980-1995, MA diss. Hebrew University (Jerusalem 1995), 29f., 115 (in Hebrew).
59. Reich, "Synagogue and Ritual Bath." For the combination of synagogue and immersing installationss see n. 11 bbove.
60. J. Neusner, From Politics to Piety, 83f. 87ff.
61. Cf. Hengel and Deines, "E.P. Sanders' 'Common Judaism'," 43-47.
62. See: D.R. Schwartz, '"Kingdom of Priests' a Pharisaic Slogan?," in: idem, Studies in the Jewish Background of Christianity (WUNT 60; Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1992) 44-56 [= )'on 45 (1979/80) 96-117]2 and cf. below.
63. Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 615ff.
64. M. Douglas, Puritr and Dangee (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966) 7f., 5Iff.
65. See, e.g.: V.W. Turner, The Foress of Symbols: Aspects of Ndambb Rituall (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1977) 93ff.
66. Cf. S. Safrai, "The Synagogue," in: The Jewish Peopll in the First Century (eds. S. Safrai and M. Stern; CRINT 2/1; Assen/Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 1976) 914ff.
67. idem, "Education and the Study of the Torah," ibid. 945f. 958ff.
68. For the connection between the Torah study and purity, see: Oppenheimer, 'Am-ha'aretz, 64f.
69. See: Is. 55:1-3; Ps. 104:24-311 m. Avot 3:3; b. San. 38a; G. Feely-Hamik, The Lord" Table (Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994))
70. A.I. Baumgarten, The Flourishing of Jewish Sectt in the Maccabean Era: An Interpretation (JSJ Sup 55; Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1997) 9Iff. and bibliography.
71. M.D. Swartz, "̀Like Ministering Angels" Ritual Purity in Early Jewish Mysticism and Magic," A7S Reviiw 19 (1994) 135-167;
72. idem, Scholastic Magic, Ritual and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996) 153-172, 214f. (Swartz discusses the Hechalot literature and the Sar-Torah texts);
73. A.K. Reinhart, "Impurity/No Danger," Historr of Religions 30 (1990) 1-24.
74. See: S. Safrai, "Teaching of Pietists in Mishnaic Litera ture," JJS 16 (1965) 15-33.
75. see: Neusner, The Idea of Purity, 50ff.
76. J.D.G. Dunn, 'Jesus, Table-Fellowship, and Qumran," in: Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. J.H. Charlesworth; New York: Doubleday, 1992) 254-272
77. E.E. Urbach, 77K Sages-Their Concepts and Beliefs (trs. I. Abrahams; Jerusalem: Magnes, 1975) 1.286ff.
78. For biblical interpretation see: H.K. Harrington, 77K Impurity Systems of Qumran and the Rabbis, Biblical Foundations (SBLDS 143; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993))
79. For prayer in Qumran see: H. Lichtenberger, "Atonement and Sacrifice in the Qumran Community," in: Approaches to Ancient Judaism, II (BJS 9; ed. W.S. Green; Chico: Scholars Press, 1980) 159-171.
80. For the relation between the Qumran liturgical texts and prayer according to Rabbinic sources, see: L.H. Shiffman, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Early History of Jewish Liturgy," The Synagogue in Late Antiquity 33-48.
81. Cf. D. Flusser, "Some of the Precepts of the Torah from Qumran (4QMMT) and the Benediction Against the Heretics," Tarbiz 61 (1992) 333-74 (in Hebrew), and see also the bibliography in nn. 11-12 and 72.
82. Tevuu Tom, see: J.M. Baumgarten "The Pharisaic-Sadducean Controversies about Purity and the Qumran Texts," JJS 31 (1980) 157-170.
83. see E. Regev, "Yose ben Yoezer and the Qumran Sectarians on Purity Laws: Agreementt Controversy and a Possible Encounter," in: 7he Damascus Document: A Centennial Discovery, the Third Orion International Symposium (eds. E. Hazon and M.E. Stone; E.J. Brill)) (forthcoming).
84. M. Avodaa ara 4:9; t. Dem. 2:3, 20-22 (ed. Lieberman, 68, 72f.) t. Makh. 3:7 (ed. Zuckermandel 675).
85. Tev. Yom. 2:1, 4:1-3; Harrington, "Did the Pharisees Eat Ordinary Food".
86. See: b. Ber. 21b;
87. Boyarin, Carnal Israell 49-51.
88. Compare Douglas' theory, Purity and Dangee (and also B.A. Levine's view of impurity as demonic force, discussed in Neusner, The Idea of Purity, 8-16)
89. See: Talmudic Encyclopedia (Jerusalem: Talmudic Encyclopedia Institute, 1988) 4.146-47.
90. See also: Lev. 17::5f., 20:3; Milgrom, Leviticus, 44ft'., 256ff.
91. Cf. ibid. 949, 1005. Interestingly, J. Neusner. "From Scripture to Mishnah: The Origins of Trac tate Niddah," JJS 29 (1978. 143 .
92. For the similar attitude of his students at the end of the second century cE, cf.: S. Safrai, "The Holy assembly of Jerusalem,"/jan 22 (1957) 183-94 (in Hebrew).
93. A. Oppenheimer, "Those of the School of Rabbi Yannai," Studies in the Historr of the Jewish Peopll and the Land of Israell 4 (1978) 137-45 (in Hebrew).
94. See also P. Brown, The Body and Society (London and Boston; Faber and Faber, 1989) 34f:, 46ff.
95. N. Rubin, "From Monism to Dualism: Relationship between the Body and Soul in Talmudic Thought," Daat, Journal of Philosophy & Kabbalah, 23 (1989)) 33-63 (in Hebrew).
96. S. Stern, Jewish Identity in Early Rabbinic Writings (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1994)) 51-71, Prof. H.D. Betz has kindly called to my attention that Paul maintained the same attitude as the Rabbis.
97. C. Shilling, The Body and Social Theorr (Theory, Culture & Society series; London, Newbury Park CA, and New Delhi; Sage Publications, 1993) 1-5, 37, 86-88 and 175ff.
98. For the connection between body and self, see also: Douglas, Purity and Dangerr ch. 7; T.J. Csordas (ed.), Embodiment and Experience (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1994))
99. For the tension between individualiim and ritual, see: M Douglas, Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology (New York; Vintage Books, 1970) 4, 8, 38, 144-147;
100. M. Thompson et al., Cultural Theory (Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford; Westview, 1990) 133f.
101. For the Rabbinic tendency to replace sacred space with emphasis on individua) intention (compare Deut. 23:10-15 with m. Ber. 3:4-6)
102. see: B.M. Bokser, "Approaching Sacred Space," #77? 78 (1985) 279-299.
103. For the Mishnah's principal message of individualism through sanctificatton and cleanness see: J. Neusner, Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishna (Chicago and London; The University of Chicago, 1981) 272, 275, 282.
104. See: J. Neusner, "The Fellowship (TITOn) in Second Jewish Commonwealth," HTR 53 (1960) 125-42. Oppenheimer, Am Ha-Aretz, 87ff., 118-55, esp. 143f.
105. see: Lichtenberger, "Atonement and Sacrifice in the Qumran Community." For early Christian baptismal sects, see: L.L. Grabbe, Judaism From Cyrus to Hadrian (Minneapolis: SCM, 1992) 507-11.
106. See the views of S. Lieberman, "The Discipllne in the So-Called Dead Sea Manual of Discipllne," JBL 71 (1952)) 199-206;
107. Oppenheimer, 'Am-Ha-Aretz, 83-145;
108. 55 The fact that most of the halakhot of non-priestly purity cannot reveal any par
109. T. Sab. 1:15, ed. Lieberman, 4.
110. See: S. Lieberman, Tosefta ki-Fshutah (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 19922 3.13.
111. Oppenheimer, 'Am-ha'areiz 93ff. 159f.
112. See:/. Bic. 2:8 (ed. Lieberman 292); Sanders, Judaism, Practice and Belief 63 BCE-66 CE (London-Philadelphia: SCM & Trinity, 1992) 434f, 442.
113. see: E. Rivkin, "Defining the Pharisees: The Tannaitic Sources," HUCA 40-41 (1969-1970) 205-49;
114. Goodman, The Ruling Class of Judaea (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press, 1987) 82-85;
115. cf. Oppenheimer, ̀Am-ha'aretz, 144ff. For the difference between Pharisees and Rabbis
116. see: SJ.D. Cohen, "The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism," HUCA 55 (1984) 27-53.
117. See: S.N. Mason, "Priesthood in Josephus and the "Pharisaic Revolution," JBL 107 (1988) 657-661;
118. D. Goodblatt, The Monarchic Principle {Textt und Studien zum Antikee Judentum 38; Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1994) 6-76.
119. see: SJ. Spiro. "Who Was the haberr A New Approach to an Ancient Institution", 7SY ii (1980)) 186-216.
120. Neusner, From Politics to Piety, 41ff.
121. I.L. Levine, "On the Political Involvement of the Pharisees under Herod and the Procurators," Cathedra 8 (1978) 12-28 (in Hebrew).
122. Cf. M. Goodman, The Ruling Class. For the Pharisaic teachings and the character of the movement as opposed to priestly circles see: M.D. Herr, "Continuum in the Chain of Torah Transmission," 7OT 44 (1980) 43-56 (in Hebrew);
123. E. Rivkin, A Hidden Revolution (Nashville: Abingdon, 1978) 191ff.f
124. S.A. Cohen, The Three Croivns: Structure of Communal Politics in Early Rabbinic Jewry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990)) and cf. below n. 70.
125. J. Neusner, A Life of Rabban Tohanan ben Zakkai (Studia Post-Biblica 6; Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1962) 44-60;
126. E. Regev. The Sadducean Halakhak and Sadducees" Influence on Social and Religious Life in the Land of Israel, Ph.D. dissertation, Bar-Han University, Ramat-Gan 1999 (in Hebrew).
127. See: A.I. Baumgarten, "The Name of the Pharisees," JBL 102 (1983) 411-28.
128. Cohen, The Three Crowns. For the imitation of elites see: S.F. Nadel, "The Concept of Social Elites," International Social Science Bulletin 8 (1956), pp. 416-418.
129. T. Bottomore, Elites and Society (New York: Routledge, 19932) 36ff. Thanks are due to Prof. Z. Safrai, who drew my attention to the phenomenon of elites in ancient Judaism.
130. Shilling, 77K Body and Social Theory, 128-149 (following P. Bourdieu))
131. H. Eilberg-Schwartz, 7he Savage in Judaism (Bloommgton and Indianapolis; Indiana University Press, 1990, 195-216.
132. P. Brown, "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity," JRS 61 (1971) 80-101;
133. idem, Society and the Holy in Late Antiquity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982) 6ff., 103-152, 157-165, esp. 127, 151f.
134. L.I. Levine, The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity (Jerusalem and New York: Yad Izhak ben Zvi & Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1989) 105-109, 193f.
135. idem, "The Sages and the Synagogue in Late Antiquity," in: The Gali)le in Late Antiquity (ed. L.I. Levine; The Jewish Theological Seminar of America, 1992) 201-222, esp. 221.
136. J.Z. Smith, "The Temple and the Magician," Map Is Not Territory, Studies in the Historr of Religions (Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity 23; Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1978) 172-189, esp. 187, n. 66.
137. E.P. Sanders, Judaism, Practice and Belieff 458-90.
138. see: E Rivkin, "Pharisaism and the Crisis of the Individual in the Greco-Roman World," JQR 61 (1970-19711 27-53.
139. E.E. Urbach, 77K Sages, 1.367-370;
140. I. Knohl, "Post-B,blical Sectarianism and the Priestly Schools of the Pentateuch: The Issue of Popular Participation in the Temple Cult on Festivals," in: The Madrid Qumran Congress (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah XI,2; eds. J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner; Leiden: Brill, 1992) 601-609.
141. 'Avot R. Nat. codex A, 12, ed. Schechter (New York: Feldheim, 1967) 56; b. Bekh. 30b;
142. A. Biichler, The Priestt and 7heir Cult (tr. N. Ginton; Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1966) 15-20 (in Hebrew);
143. R. Kimelman, "The Conflict between the Priestly Oligarchy and the Sages in the Talmudic Period," Zjon 48 (1983) 135-48 (in Hebrew);
144. Cohen, The Three Crowns, ch. 6. For the Rabbis' social awareness
145. see: Urbach, 77K Sagess 1.315ff. 593ff.
146. Oppenheimer, 'Am-ha'aretz, 184-86. cf. also: Hengel and Deines. "E.P. Sanders' 'Common Judaism'" 47, 50f.
147. Oppenheimer, ̀Am-ha'aretz, 136ff. idem, "Benevolent Societies in Jerusalem," in: Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period, Abraham Schalit memorial volume (eds. A. Oppenheimer et al; Jerusalem: Yad Izhak ben-Zvi & Ministry of Defense, 1980) 178-90 (in Hebrew).
148. P.H. Peli, "The Havurot That Were in Jerusalem," HUCA 55 (1985) 55-74
149. A. Cohen, 77K Politics of Elite Culture: Explorations in the Dramaturgy of Power in a Moder Africaa Society (Berkely-Los Angeles-London: University of California Press, 1981).
150. See: Sanders. Jewish Law 28, 39-40;
151. R.P. Booth, Jesus and the Laws of Purity, Tradition, Historr and Legaa Historr in Mark 7 (JSJVT Sup 13; Sheffield: JSOT, 1986) esp. 49ff.;
152. B. Chilton, "A Generative Exegesii of Mark 7::1 23," in: B. Chilton and C.A. Evans, Jesus in Context Temple, Purity, and Restoration (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1997) 297-317
153. For the opposite view see: M. Borg, Conflict, Holiness and Politics in the Teachings of Jesus (Lewiston-Queensson-Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 1984) 82ff.
154. A. Watson, Jesus and the Jews, Pharisaii Tradition In John (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1995) 23ff.
155. see: P.F. Eisler, Community and Gospel in Luke-Acts, The Social and Political Motivations of Lucaa Theology (Cambridge-New York-Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1987) 71-109.
156. According to H. Maccoby, Ritual and Morality: The Ritual PuritY Systtm and its Place in Judaism (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press 1999) 155-161, Jesus was objecting to concern for hygiene, not to concern for ritual purity.
157. See: Cf. Hengel and Deines, "E.P. Sanders' 'Common Judaism'," 45, and cf. ibid. 13f.
158. A.I. Baumgarten, "Korban and the Pharisaic Paradosis," JANES 16-17 (1984-1985) 5-17. Compare the saying of R. Akiva (m. Avot 3.13) "Vows are a fence to abstention [peris/ad]".
159. E.P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaiim (London: SCM, 1985) 260f. 277f. and passim.
160. see: J. Klawans, "The Impurity of Immorality in Ancient Judaism," JJS 48 (1997) 14f. and cf. Borg, Conflict, Holiness and Politics.
161. see D.R. Schwartz's introduction to his Studies in the Jewish Background of Christianity.
162. Cf. E. Leach, Culture and Communication: The Logii by Which Symbols Are Connected (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press, 1976) 33ff.
163. For food as boundary marker that creates sectarian enclaves, see: A.I. Baumgarten, "Finding Oneself in A Sectarian Context: A Sectarian Food and Its Implications," in: Self, Soul and Body in Religious Experience (eds: A.I. Baumgarten et al.; Studies in the History of Religions 78; Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1998) 125-147.