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Volumn 121, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 123-143

"Are any among you sick?" The health care system in the letter of James

(1)  Albl, Martin C a  

a NONE   (United States)

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EID: 61249234449     PISSN: 00219231     EISSN: 19343876     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3268333     Document Type: Letter
Times cited : (9)

References (96)
  • 1
    • 0003782210 scopus 로고
    • Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderland between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry
    • Berkeley: University of California Press
    • For a foundational description of health care as a system, see Arthur Kleinman, Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderland between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry (Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care 3; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 24-60
    • (1980) Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care , vol.3 , pp. 24-60
    • Kleinman, A.1
  • 4
    • 80054390683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Epistle of James in Modern Discussion
    • 25.5
    • A scholarly consensus holds that James purports to be written by James, the brother of Jesus, leader of the Jerusalem church until his death around the year 62. Yet whether James is penned directly by him, represents a collection of his teaching revised by a later editor, or is simply a pseudonymous work is unclear. Proposals have located the audience from Palestine to Hellenistic Egypt to Rome. See, e.g., Peter H. Davids, "The Epistle of James in Modern Discussion," ANRW 25.5:3622-27
    • ANRW , pp. 3622-3627
    • Davids, P.H.1
  • 6
    • 60950094419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New Testament Readings; London: Routledge
    • Richard Bauckham, James: Wisdom of James, Disciple of Jesus the Sage (New Testament Readings; London: Routledge, 1999), 25-28. The generalized nature of the letter is already clear from its address to "the twelve tribes in the Dispersion." Bauckham argues that James constructs imaginary scenarios (e.g., a visit of a rich and poor person to the συναγ ωγή, in 2:2-3) that might have taken place in any Diaspora community, and that passages such as Jas 2:14-20 are written in a diatribe style in which the author addresses a generalized opponent. Bauckham's proposed generalized audience fits the situation in our passage well: James employs the indefinite τις in its instructions on healing (5:14; cf. the use of τις in 1:5,23,26; 2:14-18; 3:2; 5:19)
    • (1999) James: Wisdom of James, Disciple of Jesus the Sage , pp. 25-28
    • Bauckham, R.1
  • 9
    • 80054415169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BAGD, 402
    • BAGD, 402
  • 11
    • 37749016363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New Haven/London: Yale University Press
    • Dale B. Martin rightly cautions against reading Cartesian dualisms of body/soul and natural/supernatural into ancient writings (The Corinthian Body [New Haven/London: Yale University Press, 1995], 3-15)
    • (1995) The Corinthian Body , pp. 3-15
    • Martin, D.B.1
  • 15
    • 80054415175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • James, 84
    • In his discussion of dualism in James, Johnson proposes that Jas 4:4 "might be taken as thematic for the composition as a whole" (James, 84)
  • 16
    • 84970353750 scopus 로고
    • The Epistle of James in Rhetorical and Social Scientific Perspective: Holiness-wholeness and Patterns of Replication
    • John H. Elliott, The Epistle of James in Rhetorical and Social Scientific Perspective: Holiness-Wholeness and Patterns of Replication," BTB 23 (1993): 71. A major point developed by Elliott is the connection between wholeness and purity in James
    • (1993) BTB , vol.23 , pp. 71
    • Elliott, J.H.1
  • 17
    • 80054415216 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Jas 1:2-4 as the statement of the "main theme" within the rhetorical structure of James, see Elliott, "Social Scientific Perspective," 71-72, and the literature cited there. Concern with wholeness is apparent already at the level of James's word choices: τέ λειος is found in Jas 1:4, 17, 25; 3:2 (see also the use of τελέω in 2:8; τελ ειόω in 2:22; τέλο ς in 5:11; αcombining comma aboveποτελ έω in 1:15 ). The related term οcombining reversed comma abovéλος (2:10; 3:2, 3, 6; οcombining reversed comma aboveλοcombining reversed comma aboveκληρος in 1:4) reflects the same concern
    • Social Scientific Perspective , pp. 71-72
    • Elliott1
  • 20
    • 80054415137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jas 4:1
    • Ηδοναί are identified as divisive forces in Jas 4:1
  • 21
    • 80054415157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • First definition in BAGD, 451
    • First definition in BAGD, 451
  • 24
    • 0004008053 scopus 로고
    • London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
    • In her classic study, Mary Douglas shows how rituals in various cultures presuppose that an individual's body symbolizes the social body (Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo [London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966], 114-28)
    • (1966) Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo , pp. 114-128
  • 25
    • 80054415140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jas 3:1-12 as a "self-contained" section, Johnson, James, 253
    • On Jas 3:1-12 as a "self-contained" section, see Johnson, James, 253
  • 26
    • 80054415149 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare 1 Cor 6:15
    • Compare 1 Cor 6:15
  • 27
    • 60949630097 scopus 로고
    • WBC 48; Waco: Word
    • For similar arguments favoring a reference to a teacher's speech, see Ralph P. Martin, James (WBC 48; Waco: Word, 1988) 104-5
    • (1988) James , pp. 104-105
    • Martin, R.P.1
  • 30
    • 80054382564 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jas 2:9
    • See Jas 2:9, "But if you show partiality, you commit sin."
  • 31
    • 80054415084 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crosby, LCL
    • Crosby, LCL
  • 32
    • 37749016363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cohoon and Crosby, LCL. For a discussion of this text and other examples of the topos, see Martin, Corinthian Body, 38-39
    • Corinthian Body , pp. 38-39
    • Martin1
  • 33
    • 80054415071 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare Elliott's more detailed chart of dualistic contrasts in James ("Social Scientific Perspective," 75-77)
    • Social Scientific Perspective , pp. 75-77
  • 34
    • 0017059333 scopus 로고
    • Disease Etiologies in Non-Western Medical Systems
    • Avalos builds on the work of George M. Foster ("Disease Etiologies in Non-Western Medical Systems," American Anthropologist 78 [1976]: 773-82) and Pilch. In James's time, the Hippocratic tradition focused on naturalistic causes, while a variety of religious systems took personalistic approaches
    • (1976) American Anthropologist , vol.78 , pp. 773-782
    • Foster, G.M.1
  • 36
    • 80054375629 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Metaph. 1.3
    • Metaph. 1.3)
  • 38
    • 80054375620 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2 Chr 16:12-13
    • Contrast the passage in 2 Chr 16:12-13, where the physician's art and God's healing are set in opposition
  • 39
    • 80054379457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • esp. 143
    • Martin, Corinthian Body, 140-46, esp. 143 n. 14
    • Corinthian Body , Issue.14 , pp. 140-146
    • Martin1
  • 40
    • 80054376103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ep. 95.52
    • Compare also Seneca's comment, quoted above, "all that you behold, that which comprises both god and man, is one" (Ep. 95.52)
  • 41
    • 80054381288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Exod 4:11
    • For example, Exod 4:11: "Who gives speech to mortals? Who makes them mute or deaf, seeing or blind? Is it not I, says the Lord?"
  • 42
    • 80054412551 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Job 5:18
    • and Job 5:18: "For he [God] wounds, but he binds up; he strikes, but his hands heal."
  • 43
    • 80054412531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Deut 7:15; 32:39
    • Deut 7:15; 32:39
  • 44
    • 80054388236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Isa 45:7
    • Isa 45:7
  • 45
    • 80054382487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Amos 3:6
    • Amos 3:6
  • 46
    • 80054394147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Luke 13:1-5
    • Luke 13:1-5
  • 47
    • 80054394150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John 9:1-3
    • John 9:1-3
  • 48
    • 85037347969 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See further references in Davids, James, 194
    • James , pp. 194
    • Davids1
  • 49
    • 80054412633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John 12:40
    • John 12:40
  • 50
    • 80054414288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mark 9:17
    • This view is expressed in the Gospels (e.g., Mark 9:17
  • 51
    • 80054382470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Luke 13:11
    • Luke 13:11)
  • 52
    • 80054412638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ant. 8.46-49
    • Josephus discusses a contemporary of his, a certain Eleazar, who followed Solomon's example of healing by casting out demons (Ant. 8.46-49)
  • 53
    • 64249117709 scopus 로고
    • rev. H. Greeven; Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress
    • Dibelius, James: A Commentary on the Epistle of James (rev. H. Greeven; Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976), 252. Dibelius understands the phrase εν τω ονοματι του κυριου as a reference to a ritual invocation of the Lord's name
    • (1976) James: A Commentary on the Epistle of James , pp. 252
    • Dibelius1
  • 54
    • 80054381692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dibelius, James, 252
    • It may refer to a specific invocation of the Lord's name (so Dibelius, James, 252)
  • 55
    • 80054412650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Luke 10:17
    • or more generally to the power by which the anointing is done (cf. Luke 10:17)
  • 56
    • 80054414269 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davids, James, 193
    • most commentators judge that the action occurs simultaneously (e.g., Davids, James, 193)
  • 57
    • 80054388291 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hom. Lev. 2.4.5
    • Origen's quotation of Jas 5:14 includes the phrase "and they will place their hands on him" (Hom. Lev. 2.4.5)
  • 58
    • 72849153123 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Edinburgh: Handsel; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans
    • John Wilkinson sees the oil as medicinal, arguing from its widespread medicinal use in contemporary culture and James's use of the more "secular" verb αcombining comma aboveλεί ψω for anointing instead of the more obviously cultic χριω (The Bible and Healing: A Medical and Theological Commentary [Edinburgh: Handsel; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998], 248-55)
    • (1998) The Bible and Healing: A Medical and Theological Commentary , pp. 248-255
    • Wilkinson, J.1
  • 59
    • 0007200039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Devil, Disease, and Deliverance: Origins of Illness in New Testament Thought
    • Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press
    • For other scholars who favor a medici-nal interpretation, see John Christopher Thomas, The Devil, Disease, and Deliverance: Origins of Illness in New Testament Thought (Journal of Pentecostal Theology Supplement Series 13; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 25 n. 38
    • (1998) Journal of Pentecostal Theology Supplement Series , vol.13 , Issue.38 , pp. 25
    • Thomas, J.C.1
  • 60
    • 80054388282 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Seneca Ep. 53.5
    • Seneca Ep. 53.5
  • 61
    • 80054414261 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pliny Nat. 15.4; 23.39
    • Pliny Nat. 15.4; 23.39
  • 62
    • 80054412583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philo Somn. 2.58
    • For medicinal use in a Hellenistic Jewish context see Philo Somn. 2.58 (oil strengthens and firms muscles)
  • 63
    • 80054388264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Josephus Ant. 17.172
    • Josephus Ant. 17.172
  • 64
    • 80054381652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J. W. 1.657
    • J. W. 1.657 (Herod's physicians bathe him in warm oil)
  • 65
    • 80054381631 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Isa 1:6
    • See Isa 1:6
  • 66
    • 80054388253 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Luke 10:34
    • and Luke 10:34 for medicinal use of oil for treating wounds
  • 67
    • 61249402519 scopus 로고
    • HNTC; San Francisco: Harper & Row
    • Sophie Laws appropriately cautions against a sharp distinction between "medicinal" and "religious" elements in James's description (A Commentary on the Epistle of James [HNTC; San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980], 227). As Avalos and Foster recognize, beliefs in naturalistic and personalistic causation are not mutually exclusive
    • (1980) A Commentary on the Epistle of James , pp. 227
  • 69
    • 80054412568 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oleum
    • A. S. Pease, "Oleum," PW 17:2454-74
    • PW , vol.17 , pp. 2454-2474
    • Pease, A.S.1
  • 70
    • 61249484520 scopus 로고
    • L'onction des malades d'après Saint Jacques
    • Bo Reicke, "L'onction des malades d'après Saint Jacques," La Maison-Dieu 113 (1973): 50-56
    • (1973) La Maison-Dieu , vol.113 , pp. 50-56
    • Bo, R.1
  • 71
    • 50349084726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oil in Ancient Greece and Rome
    • For cultic use of olive oil, see Angus Bowie, "Oil in Ancient Greece and Rome," in Dudley and Rowell, Oil of Gladness, 26-34
    • Dudley and Rowell, Oil of Gladness , pp. 26-34
    • Bowie, A.1
  • 72
    • 80054412534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oil in Ancient Greece and Rome
    • 30
    • Bowie, "Oil in Ancient Greece and Rome," 27-28, 30)
    • Bowie1
  • 74
    • 80054388178 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • OTP 2:259-95
    • OTP 2:259-95
  • 75
    • 61449247845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Introduction to Life of Adam and Eve
    • The Apocalypse of Moses is dated toward the end of the first century C.E. by M. D. Johnson ("Introduction to Life of Adam and Eve," OTP 2:252)
    • OTP , vol.2 , pp. 252
    • Johnson, M.D.1
  • 76
    • 80054414180 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Apoc. Mos. 40:2
    • Near the end of the narrative archangels anoint Adam's body (Apoc. Mos. 40:2)
  • 77
    • 80054388195 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2 En. 22:8-10
    • The archangel Michael is sent by the Lord to take off Enoch's worldly clothes, anoint him with "delightful oil," and put him into "the clothes of glory" (2 En. 22:8-10)
  • 78
    • 80054388204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • OTP 1:138-39
    • As a result, Enoch becomes "like one of the glorious ones, and there was no observable difference" (OTP 1:138-39)
  • 79
    • 80054414179 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • OTP 2:91
    • 2 Enoch is notoriously difficult to date; the notes by F. I. Andersen suggest the late first century C.E. as most plausible (OTP 2:91, but see also pp. 94-95 for qualifications)
  • 80
    • 80054414177 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2 En. 8:5
    • An olive tree in paradise flowing with oil is also mentioned (2 En. 8:5, shorter recension)
  • 81
    • 80054412307 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jos. Asen. 8:5; 15:5; and 16:16
    • and the references to the "ointment of incorruptibility" in Jos. Asen. 8:5; 15:5; and 16:16
  • 82
    • 80054387928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davids, James, 194
    • E.g., Davids, James, 194
  • 83
    • 80054376229 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dibelius, James, 254
    • Dibelius, James, 254
  • 84
    • 80054388145 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mark 5:23, 28, 34; 10:52
    • In support of his view, Davids refers to Mark 5:23, 28, 34; 10:52
  • 85
    • 80054388169 scopus 로고
    • Eschatological 'Rain' Imagery in the War Scroll from Qumran and in the Letter of James
    • Robert Eisenman uncovers yet another eschatological dimension to this passage with his plausible suggestion that references to Elijah's effective prayers (5:17-18) evoked among James's readers images of rain as eschatological judgment ("Eschatological 'Rain' Imagery in the War Scroll from Qumran and in the Letter of James," JNES 49 [1990]: 173-84)
    • (1990) JNES , vol.49 , pp. 173-184
  • 90
    • 60949851983 scopus 로고
    • The Elders: Seniority within Earliest Christianity
    • Edinburgh: T & T Clark
    • R. Alastair Campbell, The Elders: Seniority within Earliest Christianity (Studies of the New Testament and its World; Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1994), 246
    • (1994) Studies of the New Testament and Its World , pp. 246
    • Campbell, R.A.1
  • 92
    • 80054381564 scopus 로고
    • Open Healing and Open Eating: Jesus as a Jewish Cynic?
    • John Dominic Crossan, "Open Healing and Open Eating: Jesus as a Jewish Cynic?" BR 36 (1991): 6-18
    • (1991) BR , vol.36 , pp. 6-18
    • Crossan, J.D.1
  • 93
  • 94
    • 0003712612 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • Although he deals with a later time period, one can also refer to Rodney Stark's view that the effectiveness of the Christian health care system was a major contributing factor to the spread of Christianity in the second and third centuries (The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996], 73-94)
    • (1996) The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History , pp. 73-94
  • 96
    • 0026825713 scopus 로고
    • Early Christianity as a Religion of Healing
    • For a view denying that healing was a distinctive feature of earliest Christianity, see Gary B. Ferngren, "Early Christianity as a Religion of Healing," Bulletin of the History of Mediane 66 (1992): 1-15
    • (1992) Bulletin of the History of Mediane , vol.66 , pp. 1-15
    • Ferngren, G.B.1


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