The crimes and consequences of illegal immigration: A cross-border examination of Operation Wetback, 1943 to 1954

Western Historical Quarterly

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 421-443

  Hernández, Kelly Lytle ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61149712010     PISSN: 00433810     EISSN: 19398603     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/25443415     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. Kitty Calavita, Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the I.N.S. (New York, 1992), 53-61;
2. Juan Ramon García, Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 (Westport, CN, 1980), 183-234;
3. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, 2004), 155-6.
4. For an extended discussion of the politics of migration control within Mexico and efforts to police border crossings into the United States, see Jaime R. Aguila, "Protecting 'México de Afuera': Mexican Emigration Policy, 1876-1928," (PhD diss., Arizona State University, 2000);
5. Lawrence A. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States: 1897-1931, Socioeconomic Patterns (Tucson, 1980), 96-118;
6. Fernando Saúl Alanis Enciso, "No cuenten conmigo: La pólitica de repatriación del gobierno mexicano y sus nacionales en Estados Unidos, 1910-1928," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 19 (Summer 2003): 401-31;
7. Andrés Molina Enríquez, Los Grandes Problemas Nacionales (1909; Alicante, MEX, reprinted 1981);
8. Gustavo Durón González, Problemas migratorios de México: Apuntamientos para su resolución (Talleres de la Cámara de diputados, MEX, 1925);
9. Moisés González Navarro, Los Extranjeros en México y Los Mexicanos en el Extranjero, 1821-1970, vol III (Mexico City, MEX, 1994).
10. Although this article focuses upon the specific case of crossborder police practice, for a discussion of Mexico's efforts to control Mexican migrants and migration through its U.S. consular offices see Gilbert G. González, Mexican Consuls and Labor Organizing: Imperial Politics in the American Southwest (Austin, 1999).
11. Calavita, Inside the State;
12. Nelson Gage Copp, "Wetbacks" and Braceros: Mexican Migrant Laborers Nelson Gage Copp, and American Immigration Policy, 1930-1960 (San Francisco, 1971);
13. Richard D. Craig, The Bracero Program; Interest Groups and Foreign Policy (Austin, 1971);
14. Ernesto Galarza, Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story (Charlotte, CA, 1964);
15. Peter Kirstein, Anglo Over Bracero: A History of the Mexican Worker in the United States from Roosevelt to Nixon (San Francisco, 1977);
16. Otley M. Scruggs, Braceros, "Wetbacks," and the Farm Labor Problem: Mexican Agricultural Labor in the United States, 1942-1954 (New York, 1988).
17. Fernando Saúl Alanis Enciso, "La Constitución de 1917 y la Emigración de Trabajadores Mexicanos a Estados Unidos," Relaciones 22 (Summer 2001), 205-30.
18. Interview with Jose M. Dávila, set I, filed notes series B, folder 5, Mexican Labor in US, carton 10, Paul S. Taylor Collection, Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley.
19. Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque, 1995), 121.
20. Héctor Aguilar Camín and Lorenzo Meyer, In the Shadow of the Mexican Revolution: Contemporary Mexican History, 1910-1989 (Austin, 1993), 159-98;
21. John Mason Hart, Empire and Revolution: The Americans in Mexico since the Civil War (Berkeley, 2002), 403-31;
22. Stephen R. Niblo, War, Diplomacy, and Development: The United States and Mexico, 1938-1954 (Wilmington, DE, 1995)
23. and The Impact of War: Mexico and World War II, Occasional Paper no. 10, La Trobe University Institute of Latin American Studies (Melbourne, AUS, 1988).
24. García, Operation Wetback;
25. and Wayne A. Cornelius, Mexican Migration to the United States: Causes, Consequences, and US Responses, Migration and Development Study Group, Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (Cambridge, MA,1978).
26. For discussions of internal migrations within Mexico during the 1940s and 1950s, see Humberto Mun̄oz et al, Mexico City, Industrialization, Migration, and the Labour Force, 1930-1970 (New York, 1982)
27. and Tomás Martínez Saldaña, El costo social de un éxito político: la política expansionista del Estado mexicano en el agro lagunero (Chapingo, MEX, 1980), 36-8.
28. and Casey Walsh, "Development in the Borderlands: Cotton Capitalism, State Formation, and Regional Political Culture in Northern Mexico" (PhD diss., New School University, 2001), 468-500.
29. Casey Walsh, "Demobilizing the Revolution: Migration, Repatriation, and Colonization in Mexico, 1911-1940," Working Paper 26 for the Center for Comparative Immigration Studies (La Jolla, CA, 2000), 23-4.
30. Galarza, Merchants of Labor, 58-71;
31. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York, 2002), 34-41.
32. File 546.6/120, box 793, Fondo de Manuel Ávila Camacho [hereafter FMAC], Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City [hereafter AGN).
33. File 545.3/98, box 587, Fondo de Miguel Alemán Valdés [hereafter FMAV], AGN
34. and file 548.1/19, box 803, FMAC, AGN.
35. For a history of the political economy of cotton farming in the Matamoros region see, Saldaña, El costo social de un éxito político, 15-43;
36. Fernando Saúl Alanís Enciso, El Volle Bajo del Río Bravo, Tamaulipas, en la Década de 1930: El Desarrollo Regional en la Posrevolución a Partir de la Irrigación, la Migración Interna y los Repatriados de Estados Unidos (Ciudad Victoria, MEX, 2003);
37. Walsh, "Development in the Borderlands."
38. File 546.6/120-1, box 793, FMAC, AGN.
39. File 546.6/1-32, box 594, FMAV;
40. file 546.6/1-27, box 594, FMAV, 1;
41. file 546.6/120-1, box 793, FMAC, 3. All files located at AGN.
42. Although the United States rarely afforded Mexico much influence in U.S.-Mexican relations, during World War II many officials wanted to retain the support of a neighboring country while others wanted improved access to Mexican workers. The early 1940s, was a unique period in which Mexico was able to influence U.S. policy on issues of migration.
43. "Salaries and Expenses 1946," 139, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services Historical Reference Library, Washington, DC (hereafter USCISHRL).
44. Richard Tait Jarnagin, "The Effect of Increased Illegal Mexican Migration upon the Organization and Operations of the United States Immigration Border Patrol, Southwest Region" (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1957), 90.
45. Annual Report of the Secretary of Labor for Fiscal Year ending 1940 (Washington DC, 1941), 111.
46. 12 December 1943 memo, no. 9956, from the Mexican Embassy in Washington, DC, file 56161/109, box 2662, RG 85, acc 58A734, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC, [hereafter NARA].
47. 13 November 1944 memo from Carson Morrow to District Director, file 56364/43 sw pt. 1, box 91, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA.
48. 9 June 1944 memo from Andrew Jordan, District Director Chicago to Commissioner General of INS regarding "Mexican Aliens," file 55853/313A, box 439, RG 85, acc 58A734, NARA.
49. 15 July 1944 memo from H.P. Brady to W.F. Kelly, file 55853/314B, box 439, acc 58A734, NARA.
50. 27 November 1945 memo from Jospeh Savoretti to Grover C. Wilmoth, District Director of El Paso, "Removal of Mexican nationals apprehended in the Los Angeles District through El Paso and Nogales," file 55853/300D, box 437, RG 85, acc 58A734, NARA.
51. The planelifts occurred sporadically, relying on erratic appropriations from the U.S. Congress, members of which received multiple complaints from southwestern agribusiness about mass deportations of their workers.
52. If a resident of the adjacent border area had already been apprehended several times he might also be subject to deportation to the interior. Generally, only men were sent by planelift, while women and family groups were trainlifted. File 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, acc 67A2033, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland [hereafter NARA CPM].
53. 20 September 1956 memo from Marcus Neelly, District Director El Paso to E.D. Kelliher, Chief, Detention, Deportation and Parole, El Paso, file 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, acc 67A2033, NARA CPM.
54. For a similar scenario, see 5 November 1957 memo regarding "AIRLIFT-Reynosa to Leon, Guanajuato" from John P. Swanson, Assistant Regional Commissioner for Enforcement, Southwest Region to All Chief Patrol Inspectors, Southwest Region, file 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, acc 67A0233, NARA CPM.
55. 27 June 1957 memo regarding "Movement of Buslifted Aliens" from P.A. Reyes, Patrol Inspector El Paso to Chief Patrol Inspector, El Paso, file 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, acc 67A0233, NARA CPM.
56. "Desordenes públicos entre braceros que conducía el barco platanero Mercurio I en el río Pánuco," file 4/009/1, box 2256, Archivo Histórico del lnstituto Naciónal de Migración (Mexico City, MEX).
57. I have benefited enormously from the growing body of literature on transnational policing. See Malcolm Anderson, Policing the World: Interpol and the Politics of International Police Cooperation (New York, 1989);
58. Ethan A. Nadelmann, Cops Across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement (University Park, PA, 1993);
59. J.W.E. Sheptycki, "Transnational Policing and the Makings of a Postmodern State," British Journal of Criminology 35 (Autumn 1995): 613-35
60. and Sheptycki, ed. Issues in Transnational Policing (New York, 2000).
61. 30 January 1958 from the Regional Commissioner, San Pedro, California, pages 5-6, file 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, acc 67A0233, NARA CPM.
62. Valley Evening (McAllen, Texas) Monitor, 18 July 1952.
63. 17 July 1957 memo from the Acting Intelligence Office, El Paso, Texas to the Chief Patrol Inspector of El Paso, Texas regarding "Treatment of Buslifted Aliens," file 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, acc 67A0233, NARA CPM.
64. "Que Son Tratados Como Bestias Los Braceros Deportados," El Heraldo de Chihuahua, 7 de Mayo, 1956, file 546.6/55, box 883, Fondo Adolfo Ruíz Cortines [hereafter FARC] AGN.
65. 30 January 1958, untitled memo from Regional Commissioner, San Pedro California, file 659.4 pt. 1, box 13, RG 85, ace 67A0233, NARA CPM.
66. Novedades (Mexico City), 25 July 1949.
67. González Navarro, Los Extranjeros en México, 46.
68. Novedades, 26 July 1949 and 27 July 1949.
69. File 546.6/1-27, box 594, FMAV, AGN.
70. 16 October 1953 letter from W.F. Kelly, Assistant Commissioner to William Belton, Officer in Charge, Mexican Affairs Division, Department of State and enclosed articles "Captain Alberto Moreno works with a Hand of Steel with his Patrol Agents on Those who Commit any Irregularity" and "Two More Boatmen are Apprehended," file 811.06/Mexico/12-453, box 4407, RG 59, NARA CPM.
71. 20 September memo from Fletcher Rawls, file 56364/43 sw pt. 3, box 91, acc 59A2038, NARA. Unknown year, however document is filed with records from 1953.
72. American G.I. Forum, What Price Wetback? (Austin, 1953), 17.
73. 20 September memo from Fletcher Rawls.
74. Bob Salinger (pseudonym) oral history, interview by David Burnett, 4 April 1987. National Border Patrol Museum in El Paso, Texas (hereafter NBPM).
75. 20 September memo from Fletcher Rawls. Also, see 4 May 1950 interview with Francisco Wallis-Diaz, file 56084/74A, box 2152, RG 85, acc 58A734, NARA;
76. 12 March 1957 memo from Frank Partridge to David Carnahan regarding "Parasitic Infestation," file 56364/43.39, box 98, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA;
77. 7 May 1953 memo from W.F. Kelly, file 56364/43 sw pt. 3, box 91, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA;
78. 12 June 1950 memo from Albert Del Guercio to Commissioner of INS regarding "Newspaper article alleging mistreatment of Mexican aliens," file 56084/74A, box 2152, RG 85, acc 58A734, NARA.
79. Letter from the Commissioner to Honorable Jon Phillips on 19 January 1948, file 56084/946, box 9, RG 85, ace 59A2034, NARA.
80. 20 March 1953 memo from David Snow, Patrol Inspector in Charge, Brownsville, Texas to Fletcher Rawls, Chief Patrol Inspector, McAllen, Texas, "Need for construction of boundary fence and observation towers in vicinity of Brownsville, Texas-Matamoros, Mexico to control illegal traffic," file 56084/946A, box 9, RG 85, acc 59A2034, NARA.
81. For a review of later fencing efforts and their consequences in Calexico, California, see Wayne Cornelius, "Death at the Borden: Efficacy and Unintended Consequences of U.S. Immigration Control Policy," Population and Development Review 27 (December 2001): 661-85.
82. 1 July 1949 report, "Preliminary Estimate for Lighting of Boundary Fence, Installing Protective Devices and Erection of Observation Towers at Calexico, San Ysidro and Nogales," file 56084/946A, box 9, RG 85, ace 59A2034, NARA.
83. Also see, 28 November 1952 memo from R.L. Williams to H. Landon regarding "International Fence at Calexico," file 56084/946A, box 9, RG 85, acc 59A2034, NARA;
84. 27 June 1949 memo from Nick Collaer to W.F. Kelly regarding "Guarding of the International Fence, Calexico," file 56364/43 sw pt. 1, box 93, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA;
85. 12 July 1949 memo from H.R. Landon to M.H.A. Lindsay, Chief Engineer, ADT Co., file 56084/946A, box 9, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA.
86. "Mexican Workers Flood Across Line," Los Angeles Times, 2 May 1950.
87. "Bodies of Five Men Believed to be Wetbacks found in Desert," Imperial Valley (El Centro, California) Press, 4 February 1952.
88. For a discussion of the number of undocumented immigrants dying while crossing the Rio Grande, see Excelsior (Mexico City) 7, 8, and 21 July 1949.
89. "Wetback Drowns Near Calexico," Brawley (California) News, 26 May 1952, folder 6, box 50, Ernesto Galarza Collection at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California (hereafter Galarza Collection).
90. "Body is found in All American," Imperial Valley Press, 1 June 1952, folder 6, box 50, Galarza Collection.
91. File 545.3/98, box 587, FMAV, AGN.
92. Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service for Fiscal Year ending 1948 (Washington DC, 1948), 24.
93. 11 February 1950 memo from Al Quillin to Fletcher Rawls, "Activities of this station February 7 through February 10," file 56364/43 sw pt. 2, box 93, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA.
94. Fletcher Rawls letter to Jefe Brady 27 February 1950, file 56364/43 sw pt. 2, box 93, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA.
95. 2 March 1950, William Whalen, District Director San Antonio to Commissioner Washington DC, File 56364/43 sw pt. 2, box 91, acc 59A2038, NARA
96. 16 July 1952 memo from J.W. Holland to Congressman Rooney, file 56364/43 sw pt. 2, box 93, acc 59A2038, NARA.
97. "Raiders Hint Employers to be Prosecuted," Valley Evening Monitor, 30 July 1952.
98. "Wetbacks Warned to Stay in Mexico," Caller-Times News Service, n.d. Scrapbook, NBPM.
99. For an in-depth critique of Border patrol apprehension statistics, see Thomas J. Espenshade, "Using INS Border Apprehension Data to Measure the Flow of Undocumented Migrants Crossing the U.S. Mexico Frontier," International Migration Review 29 (Summer 1995): 545-65.
100. Testimony of General Swing, Commissioner of the INS, quoted in "General Swing's Little Mexican Girl," Valley Evening Monitor, 3 June 1956. The boatlifts returned the largest numbers of deportees to the interior of Mexico, but a riot aboard the S.S. Mercurio in August of 1956 resulted in the drowning of five deportees who jumped from the ship. Soon after, the boatlift program was cancelled.
101. "Highlights of Operation Wetback," file 56364/43.3, box 94, RG85, ace 59A2038, NARA.
102. Attorney General announcement, file 56364/45.6, vol. IX, box 104, RG 85, acc 59A2038, NARA.
103. Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service for Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1954 (Washington DC, 1965), 71.