Philadelphia, 1982-2007: Toward the postindustrial city

Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography

Volumn 131, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 395-444

  Simon, Roger D ^a   Alnutt, Brian ^b  

^a LEHIGH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b KUTZTOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61149464600     PISSN: 00314587     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (201)

1. For distribution of population by race by census tract, see figures 1 and 2 and Philadelphia City Planning Commission maps, http://www.philaplanning.org/ data/datamaps.html;
2. for national data measuring segregation by metropolitan area, see http://mumford.albany.edu/census/data.html.
3. The West Mount Airy neighborhood, with a stable, racially integrated population, represented a notable exception. See Barbara Ferman, Theresa Singleton, and Dan DeMarco, "West Mt. Airy, Philadelphia," Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research 4 no. 2 (1998): 29-54.
4. On interethnic relations, see Judith Goode and Jo Anne Schneider, Reshaping Ethnic and Racial Relations in Philadelphia: Immigrants in a Divided City (Philadelphia, 1994).
5. Carolyn Adams et. al., Philadelphia: Neighborhoods, Divisions, and Conflict in a Postindustrial City (Philadelphia, 1991), 23-25.
6. Christopher Patusky and John Ceffalio, Recent Trends in Immigration to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Who Came and Where Do They Live? Fels Institute of Government Report, Spring 2004), http:/Avww.fels.upenn.edu/FGRS/ FelsDCEDPhiladelphiaImmigrationReport.pdf.
7. On the new South Philadelphia communities, see Gaiutra Bahudur, "An Asian Enclave Grows in S. Phila," and Thomas Ginsberg, "Mexicans Make S. Phila. Home," Philadelphia Inquirer (hereafter Inquirer), Dec. 30, 2002, May 5, 2003.
8. U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 American Community Survey, Data Profile, Highlights: Philadelphia City, PA, http://factfinder.census.gov.
9. Adams et. al., Philadelphia, 32-33:
10. Thomas R. Winpenny, "The Subtle Demise of Industry in a Quiet City: The Deinidustrialization of Philadelphia, 1965-1995," Essays in Economic and Business History 16 (1998): 239-49;
11. Carolyn T. Adams, "The Philadelphia Experience," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 551 (1997): 223-27;
12. William J. Stull and Janice Fanning Madden, Post-Industrial Philadelphia: Structural Changes in the Metropolitan Economy (Philadelphia, 1990).
13. Philadelphia City Planning Commission, City Stats: General Demographic and Economic Data (Philadelphia, 2005), 4. The other largest employers were SEPTA, US Airways, Blue Cross, Wachovia Bank, and Verizon.
14. Joseph Cortright and Heike Mayer, Signs of Life: The Growth of Biotechnology Centers in the U.S. (Washington, DC, 2002), 11, 13, 16, 26, 27;
15. Profile of Biomedical Research and Biotechnology Commercialization: Philadelphia-Wilmington-Atlantic City Consolidated Metropolitan → Statistical → Area, → http://www.brookings.edu/es/urban/publications/ biotechphiladelphia.pdf; Center City District (CCD), State of Center City, 2007 (Philadelphia, 2007), 25-29;
16. Adams, "Philadelphia Experience," 225-27.
17. U.S. Census Bureau, 2004 American Community Survey, table R1402, http:// factfinder.census.gov.
18. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Timothy Schiller, and Theodore Michael Crone, The Industrial Evolution: Two Decades of Change in Philadelphia Metro Area's Economy (Philadelphia, 2002). The 1980 region was the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area: the Pennsylvania counties of Montgomery, Bucks, Chester, Delaware, and Philadelphia, and the New Jersey counties of Burlington, Camden, and Gloucester; in 2000 it was the Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area and included all of the above plus Salem County, New Jersey.
19. Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier (New York, 1991);
20. Andrew Cassel, "Most Improved? The Philadelphia Region," Inquirer, Nov. 17, 2004;
21. Steven Conn, Metropolitan Philadelphia: Living with the Presence of the Past (Philadelphia, 2006), 18;
22. U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000, table GCT-P12, Employment Status and Commuting to Work: 2000, http://factfinder.census.gov.
23. On how federal and state tax and spending policies favored the suburbs, see Jospeh Gyourko and Anita A. Summers, "Philadelphia: Spatial Economic Disparities," in Sunbelt/Frostbelt: Public Policies and Market Forces in Metropolitan Development, ed. Janet Rothenberg Pack (Washington, DC, 2005), 110-39.
24. The Empowerment Zones are American Street, North Central, and West Philadelphia; see http://www.empowermentzone.org for precise boundaries; Philadelphia Industrial Development Corp., 2005 Annual Review (Philadelphia, 2006). The Community Renewal Tax Relief Act of 2000 authorized the Renewal Communities program; Harold Brubaker, "Another Boost for Poor Areas," Inquirer, Jan. 23, 2002.
25. Michael B. Katz, The Price of Citizenship: Redefining America's Welfare State (New York, 2001), 127-28;
26. Paul Davies, "Friends in High Places," "Pitiful Properties Turn into Money Pit," and "Backfilling the Hole," Philadelphia Daily News (hereafter Daily News), Feb. 5 and 22, 1999, and Jan. 5, 2000;
27. Joseph A. Slobodzian, "24 Months for Stealing from Poor," Inquirer, Oct. 9, 2002.
28. Peter Beinzen, "Long Blighted Area Lures Business with Tax Breaks," and "Banking on Risky Business," Inquirer, Feb. 16 and Aug. 30, 2004.
29. The Keystone Opportunity and Keystone Innovation Zones are administered by the Pennsylvania Department of Commerce and Economic Development. See http://www.newpa.com.
30. U.S. Census Bureau, 1980 Census of Population and Housing, Census Tracts, Philadelphia, Pa.-N.J., PHC80-2-283; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Local Area Unemployment Statistics, Philadelphia Metropolitan Statistical Area, series LAUMT42379804, http://www.bls.gov/data; Adams et. al. Philadelphia, 57-65.
31. Elijah Anderson, Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City (New York, 1999), 113.
32. Basil J. Whiting with Tony Proscio, Philadelphia 2007: Prospects and Challenges (Philadelphia, 2007), 15-16.
33. Jane Eisner, "Coleman: Green Insensitive to Minorities," Inquirer, June 19, 1982.
34. Richard A. Keiser, "After the First Black Mayor: Fault Lines in Philadelphia's Biracial Coalition," in Racial Politics in American Cities, ed. Rufus P. Browning, Dale Rogers Marshall, and David H. Tabb, 2nd ed. (New York, 1997), 75.
35. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2005), 23;
36. W. Wilson Goode, with Joann Stevens, In Goode Faith: Philadelphia's First Black Mayor Tells His Story (Valley Forge, PA, 1992), 102.
37. Carolyn Acker, "Style Sours a Substantial Record," Daily News, Dec. 12, 1983;
38. George Wilson, "The Green Era Was One of Progress," Inquirer, Dec. 30, 1983.
39. Goode, In Goode Faith, 192-93, 199-202.
40. Vernon Loeb, "Mayor Acts as Peacemaker," Inquirer, Mar. 24, 1985.
41. John Anderson and Hilary Hevenor, Burning Down the House: MOVE and the Tragedy of Philadelphia (New York, 1987), 56-61;
42. Anderson and Hevenor, Burning Down the House, 109-45;
43. see also Charles W. Bowser, Let the Bunker Burn: The Final Battle with MOVE (Philadelphia, 1989).
44. See, for example, William K. Stevens, "Police Drop Bomb on Radicals' Home in Philadelphia," New York Times, May 14, 1985.
45. Thomas Ferrick Jr., "Report on MOVE Finds Goode 'Grossly Negligent' in Decisions," Inquirer, Mar. 2, 1986.
46. Peter Binzen, "Executives Say MOVE Won't Hurt," Inquirer, Mar. 10, 1986.
47. Robin Clark and Vernon Loeb, "Goode Ran City, Wooed the Public and Broke Strike,"
48. Russell Cooke, "For Goode, a Year of Recovery," Inquirer, July 27, 1986, and Jan. 4, 1987.
49. H. G. "Buzz" Bissinger, A Prayer for the City (New York, 1997), 17.
50. H. G. Bissinger, "Goode's Victories - Then and Now," Inquirer, Nov. 8, 1987.
51. Tony Locy, "Human Relations: Goode Blasts Spate of Racial Attacks," Daily News, Sept. 30, 1989.
52. Vernon Loeb, "Mayor Goode's Budget: An End to Quick Fixes," Inquirer, Mar. 27, 1988.
53. Tom Infield and Robin Clark, "On Council: A Signal of New Muscle," Inquirer, Jan. 14, 1988.
54. Keiser, "After the First Black Mayor," 88.
55. An excellent account of this election can be found in Phyllis C. Kaniss, The Media and the Mayor's Race: The Failure of Urban Political Reporting (Bloomington, IN, 1995).
56. Bissinger, Prayer for the City, 107-53.
57. Carol Ann Jenkins, "The Miracle or Mirage of Local Governance? Mayor Rendell and the Philadelphia Fiscal Crisis" (PhD diss., Temple University, 2001 ).
58. Whiting, Philadelphia 2007, 12-13.
59. Craig R. McCoy, Lea Sitton, and Thomas Ferrick Jr., "Philadelphia's State of Mind," Inquirer, Sept. 24, 1995.
60. Discission of the continuities, including shared biracial support, between the Goode and Rendell administrations and of the cooperation between Rendell and Street can be found in Richard A. Keiser, "Analyzing Urban Regime Change: Black Power, White Backlash and Shades of Gray," in Minority Politics at the Millennium, ed. Richard A. Keiser and Katherine Underwood (New York, 2000), 162-66.
61. Monica Yant, "Returns Give Street Larger Victory Margin," Inquirer, Nov. 18, 1999.
62. Thomas Fitzgerald, "A Startling Distraction in Race for Mayor," Inquirer, Oct. 8, 2003.
63. Tom Ferrick Jr., "Bug Infects Race and Voters," and Acel Moore, "What the Bug Did for Street," Inquirer, Oct.22 and Nov. 6, 2003.
64. "The Worst Mayors in America," Time, Apr. 25, 2005.
65. Miriam Hill, "Time for Wi-Fi to Sink or Sync," Inquirer, June 17, 2007.
66. Further discussion of this and other urban Wi-Fi proposals can be found in Gwen Shaffer, "Frame-Up: An Analysis of Arguments for and against Municipal Wireless Networks," Public Works Management and Policy 11 (2007): 204-16.
67. Eugenie L. Birch, "Changing Place in the New Downtown" (Princeton, NJ, Policy Research Institute on the Region, 2006);
68. for a summary of the background on Center City planning, see David W. Bartelt, "Renewing Center City Philadelphia: Whose City? Which Public's Interest?" in Unequal Partnerships: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment in Postwar America, ed. Gregory D. Squires (New Brunswick, NJ, 1989).
69. Rouse made his initial money in suburban industrial and office parks; see Peter Dobrin, "He Set Sights High - Developer Pushed Region beyond Old Limits," Inquirer, May 29, 2003;
70. see also Wolfgang Saxon III, "Willard G. Rouse, 60, Dies;
71. Shaped Philadelphia Skyline, New York Times, May 29, 2003.
72. Conn, Metropolitan Philadelphia, 16;
73. Joseph A. Slobodzian, "Center City Gains Residents, Loses Office Jobs," Inquirer, Mar. 23, 2005.
74. see Carolyn Adams, "Urban Governance and the Control of Infrastructure," Public Works Management and Policy 11 (2007): 164-76.
75. John Corr, "Sizing up the Skyline," Inquirer, June 28, 1991.
76. Editorial, "Towering over All Comers, Penn Still Defines His City," Inquirer, Mar. 21, 1984;
77. see also Thomas Hine, "Debating Penn's Hat and Raising the Roof in Phila.,"
78. Hine, "Round and Round on How High to Build,"
79. and Dan Rottenberg, "Topping Billy Penn," Apr. 1, Apr. 26, and May 5, 1984.
80. Corr, "Sizing up the Skyline."
81. Paul Steinke, "Philadelphia: The Pros and Cons of Philadelphia's Business Improvement Districts," American City 11 (2006), http://www.americancity.org.
82. "National Constitution Center Welcomes Millionth Visitor," press release, Oct. 13, 2004, http://www.constitutioncenter.org/PressRoom.
83. Edward Lawler Jr., "The President's House in Philadelphia: The Rediscovery of a Lost Landmark," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 126 (2002): 5-95;
84. See also, special issue of the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 129 (2005) on the President's House.
85. "Philadelphia Store Wears New Hat," New York Times, Oct. 25, 1987.
86. Maureen Graham, "Good-Byes, Good Buys at Store," Inquirer, Feb. 2, 1997;
87. see also Suzette Parmley, "Macy's Chooses Center City Site,"
88. and Dianna Marder, "Out Of Fashion - Strawbridge and Closure," Inquirer, Mar. 11 and May 23, 2006.
89. Gregory R. Byrnes, "Developer Named for Waterfront," Inquirer, May 16, 1985.
90. Vernon Loeb, "Skyline Carries Stamp of Both Candidates," Inquirer, Oct. 27, 1987.
91. Kimberly J. McLarin, "Planning for a Hub of Culture on N. Broad,"
92. Douglas J. Keating, "Freedom Theatre Raising the Curtain on a New Act,"
93. and Monica Yant Kinney, "Avenue of the Arts Model Sputters on N. Broad," Inquirer, Feb. 14, 1993, Feb. 16, 2000, and Aug. 20, 2001;
94. Theresa Conroy, "Separate and Far from Equal," Daily News, June 2, 1997.
95. Vernon Loeb, "Rendell Pushing Historic Phila.," Inquirer, Mar. 9, 1994.
96. Tom Belden, Rosland Briggs, Jane M. Von Bergen, "On All Fronts, A Frenzy to Tempt Tourists," Inquirer, Apr. 19, 1998;
97. "DisneyQuest Coming to Market Street," Philadelphia Business Journal, Dec. 11, 1998.
98. Inquirer, Oct. 22, 1980;
99. Joseph Durso, "Happy Phils Bind Old Wounds," and William Robbins, "On the Whole, Philadelphia Would Rather Celebrate," New York Times, Oct. 23, 1980.
100. Glen Macnow and Thomas Turcol, "Arena Deal Is Finally a Reality, Plan Faces Criticism in Council," Inquirer, June 11, 1991.
101. Jayson Stark, "Could Dream Park Be Coming? It's Time to Take Heart,"
102. Vernon Loeb, "Rendell: Stadium Site not Definite,"
103. Michael Sokolove and Howard Goodman, "Rendell Cool to Downtown Stadium Plan,"
104. Dianna Marder and Nathan Gorenstein, "Cost Will Dictate Stadium Location,"
105. and Christopher K. Hepp and Ken Dilanian, "How a Plan That Was Believed Dead Returned to Life," Inquirer, June 28, 1992, Dec. 21, 1993, Aug. 21, 1996, Oct. 31, 1997, and Feb. 4, 1999.
106. Whiting, Philadelphia 2007, 16.
107. Vanessa Williams, "Seeking a Mayor Who Will Put an End to Blight," Inquirer, Oct. 30, 1995.
108. Birch, "Changing Place in the New Downtown," 3.
109. For an overview of postwar redevelopment, see Roger D. Simon, Philadelphia: A Brief History (University Park, PA, 2003).
110. Gregory R. Byrnes, "An Old Area Rehabilitated into New Life,"
111. Byrnes, "Recycling Ramshackle Treasures,"
112. Byrnes and Gilbert M. Gaul, "Developer to Convert 2 Buildings,"
113. Byrnes, "An Industrial Zone Is Facing a Challenge,"
114. and Larry Fish, "Old City: A Time to Slow Down," Inquirer, May 8 and Nov. 27, 1983, Feb. 23 and May 6, 1984, July 27, 1986. Historic Landmarks for Living also played a key role in redevelopment of the Spring Garden area (Race to Spring Garden, between Sixteenth and Twenty-first streets);
115. see Gregory R. Byrnes, "Developer to Buy Two Buildings,"
116. and Edward Colimore, "As Institutions Boom, the Cityscape Resounds," Inquirer, Feb. 21, 1984, and Jan. 27, 1985.
117. On neighborhood boundaries see, Philadelphia City Planning Commission, Political and Community Service Boundaries of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2004).
118. Byrnes, "Industrial Zone Is Facing a Challenge";
119. Sasha Issenberg, "Land of the Loft," Philadelphia Magazine, Oct., 2002, 86, 107-8.
120. Susan Warner, "New Tech Companies Trickle into Zone along N. Broad St.,"
121. and Alan J. Heavens, "New Is New in the City," Inquirer, Mar. 26, 2000, and June 5, 2005.
122. Gregory R. Byrnes, "Laying Foundations for a National Business,"
123. Gene Austin, "Tax Credit for Rehab Is Endangered,"
124. Roger Cohn, "City Restorers Cross Fingers for Tax Credits,"
125. and Charles V. Zehren, "New Tax Law Taking a Toll on Rehabilitation," Inquirer, Dec. 3, 1984, Mar. 10 and June 24, 1985, Apr. 3, 1988.
126. Doreen Carvajal, "Where Gentrification and Crack Collide," Inquirer, Jan. 23, 1990;
127. a similar process occurred in nearby Francisville; see Anthony Gnoffo Jr., "PNB to Aid Francisville Rehab Plan,"
128. and Michael Vitez, "Realty Boom Spreading in N. Phila.," Inquirer, Dec. 8, 1989, and June 5, 2006.
129. Frank Rossi, "Life, Liberties and the Pursuit of Happiness,"
130. and Nora Koch, "New Direction: The Crowds That Made Manayunk and Old City Have Found Their Way to Northern Liberties," Inquirer, Mar. 23, 1989, and Aug. 1, 2003;
131. on artist-pioneers in Northern Liberties, see Nathaniel R. Popkin, Song of the City. An Intimate Portrait of the American Urban Landscape (New York, 2002), 97-110.
132. Edward L. Crow, Paths and Pitfalls: On the Way to a New Vibrancy in Older Retail Districts (Pittsburgh, 2003);
133. Mark Jaffe, "Manayunk Complex Gets Boost," Inquirer, Nov. 19, 1999.
134. Paul R. Levy and Roman A. Cybriwsky, "The Hidden Dimensions of Culture and Class: Philadelphia," in Back to the City: Issues in Neighborhood Renovation, ed. Shirley Bradway Laska and Daphne Spain (New York, 1980), 138-55;
135. Judith Goode and Robert T. O'Brien, "Whose Social Capital: How Economic Development Projects Disrupt Social Relations,"
136. and Patricia Stern Smallacombe, "Rootedness, Isolation, and Social Capital in an Inner City White Neighborhood," in Social Capital in the City: Community and Civic Life in Philadelphia, ed. Richardson Dilworth (Philadelphia, 2006), 159-76, 177-95;
137. Stephen Salisbury, "A Neighborly Pursuit That's Fast Fading Away,"
138. and Robert Zausner, "Casey Signs a Tax Break for Gentrification Victims," Inquirer, Nov. 16, 2005, and Dec. 14, 1988.
139. Goode and O'Brien, "Whose Social Capital," 162-76.
140. Mike Mallowe, "Notes from the New White Ghetto: Once Upon a Time There Were Families, Work, Faith, and Hope," Philadelphia Magazine, Dec. 1986;
141. Robert J. Stokes, "Business Improvement Districts and Inner City Revitalization: The Case of Philadelphia's Frankford Special Services District," International Journal of Public Administration 29 (2006): 173-86.
142. Tom Masland, "Odyssey through the Night,"
143. Michael A. Hobbs, "Giving Shelter from Life's Hardships,"
144. and Rick Nichols, "Battle Lines: City Nomads vs. Business," Inquirer, Jan. 18, Oct. 3, and Nov. 17, 1981;
145. Carolyn Teich Adams, "Homelessness in the Postindustrial City: Views from London and Philadelphia," Urban Affairs Quarterly 21 (1986): 527-49.
146. In 1982 a number of church groups joined to form the Philadelphia Coalition to End Homelessness; see http://www.pceh.org.
147. Donald C. Drake, "The Forsaken: Left to the Police, a Litter of Humanity,"
148. Doreen Carvajal and Vernon Loeb, "Merchants Call for Sweeping Changes on Homeless,"
149. Ginny Wiegand, "Frustrated by Prostitutes, Street People, Panhandlers Center City Restaurant Owners Complained to Police,"
150. Amy S. Rosenberg, "Mayor Unveils New Strategy for the Homeless,"
151. and Marie Davis, "Mayor Makes Headway on Aiding the Homeless," Inquirer, July 21, 1982, Nov. 9, 1992, Feb. 5 and Oct. 1, 1993, July 1, 1997.
152. Clea Benson, "Housing Problem Worsens, Study Says,"
153. Julie Stoiber, "First-Timer, Families Swell Homeless Ranks,"
154. Stephen Salisbury, "During Cold Spell, Help Available for Homeless,"
155. Joseph A. Slobodzian, "From Streets to Shelter, a Success - And a Puzzle,"
156. Michael Currie Schaffer, "Homelessness Is Back on the Rise,"
157. and Mitch Lipka, "Phila.'s Rising Homeless Numbers," Inquirer, Apr. 2 and Oct. 20, 2003, Jan. 8, 2004, Apr. 12, 2005, Jan. 31 and Sept. 17, 2006;
158. Joel McCord, "Where a Quarter Can Buy a Little Hope," New York Times, Nov. 26, 1006.
159. Neill A. Borowski and Doreen Canvajal, "Flight from North Philadelphia Neighborhood," Inquirer, Apr. 12, 1991; City of Philadelphia: Neighborhood Transformation Initiative, http://www.phila.gov/nti/demolition.htm.
160. See John Kromer, Neighborhood Recovery: Reinvestment Policy of the New Hometown (New Brunswick, NJ, 2000);
161. Building Livable Communities, 13-15 and passim; http://www.lisc.org/ philadelphia/assets-upload-file675-3006.pdf.
162. Matthew Purdy, "84.5 Million for Public Housing,"
163. and "U.S. Will Run Housing Authority," Inquirer, Oct. 10, 1991, and May 21, 1992.
164. Editorial, "Fraud at PHA!!!," Inquirer, May 5, 1993.
165. Cynthia Burton and Clea Benson, "Street Outlines Massive Revitalization Plan," Inquirer, Apr. 19, 2001.
166. Jennifer Lin, "Blight Unbeaten," Inquirer, Sept. 3, 2006; on the home-improvement loan program, see http://www.formyphillyhome.org.
167. Philadelphia Association of Community Development Corporations, Neighborhood Economies, Neighborhood Partnerships, Report, Oct. 2003, http://www.pacdc.org/docs/TaxCredit.pdf.
168. Larry Eichel, "Rising from Ruins," Inquirer, Dec. 4, 2005.
169. Larry Eichel, "A Longer Wait for Housing,"
170. and Editorial, "PHA Layoffs: U.S. Punishes the Needy," Inquirer, Dec. 6, 2005, and Jan. 12, 2007.
171. Marcia Gelbart and Robert Moran, "Street's Appeal: Stop the Violence," Inquirer, July 28, 2006;
172. Gregory Gilderman, "The Dead of Night," Philadelphia Magazine, Nov. 2006;
173. on location, see Inquirer map, http://inquirer.philly.com/graphics/ murders-map/;
174. U.S. Dept. of Justice, FBI, Philadelphia Homicides in 2006, Crime in the United States 2005, table 16, http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/05cius/data/table-16.html;
175. Gilderman, "Dead of Night";
176. Noel Weyrich, "Don't Start Snitchin'," Philadelphia Magazine, Dec. 2006;
177. Emilie Lounsberry, "Stoking a Culture of Fear for Witnesses," Inquirer, July 26, 2007. The hostility toward police and reluctance or fear of testifying were not unique to Philadelphia.
178. Robert J. Terry, Michael Hobbs, and Marc Schogol, "Policeman Shot to Death: Radio Newsman Charged,"
179. Marc Kaufman, "Abu-Jamal Found Guilty of Murder,"
180. and Kaufman, "Abu-Jamal Gets Electric Chair," Inquirer, Dec. 10, 1981, and July 3 and July 4, 1982. Abu-Jamal's death-row incarceration became a cause célèbre among some left-wing activists across the nation and even around the world; "Free Mumia" posters appeared in cities from Los Angeles to Lisbon.
181. Joseph A. Slobodzian, "5 City Officers Indicted on Corruption Charges," Inquirer, Mar. 1, 1995;
182. see also Mark Fazlollah, "11 More Cleared Due to Scandal," Inquirer, Mar. 25, 1997;
183. Don Terry, "Philadelphia Shaken by Criminal Police Officers," New York Times, Aug. 28, 1995.
184. Barbara Boyer and Thomas J. Gibbons Jr., "Report Says Phila. Police Unfairly Targeted Minorities," Inquirer, Dec. 8, 2000.
185. Monica Yant Kinney and Clea Benson, "The Task, Some Say, Is to Protect City's Image," Inquirer, July 17, 2000.
186. Anderson, Code of the Street, 93-94, 112.
187. Tanya Barrientes, "Figures on City's Public Schools Tell a Tale of Failure," Inquirer, July 5, 1991.
188. Dale Mezzacappa, "Cut in Desegregation Funding Protested," Inquirer, June 22, 1995.
189. Dale Mezzacappa, "Pa. Ordered to Aid Phila. Schools,"
190. Richard Jones, Dale Mezzacappa, and Robert Zausner, "Order to Aid City Schools Is Thrown Out," Inquirer, Aug. 21 and Sept. 11, 1996.
191. Robert Moran and Richard Jones, "Pa. Assesses Takeover of City Schools,"
192. and Moran and Dale Mezzacappa, "Pa. Takeover OK'ed if Phila. Shuts Schools," Inquirer, Mar. 18 and Apr. 22, 1998.
193. Susan Snyder and Martha Woodall, "A Study Guide to the Companies That Will Operate Philadelphia Schools,"
194. and Amy Worden, Thomas Fitzgerald
195. and Ovetta Wiggins, "'Zero Growth' Budget Finds $76 Million for Phila. Schools," Inquirer, Apr. 18 and June 30, 2002.
196. "School District of Philadelphia Boasts a Record Fourth Year of Increasing Test Scores on the State PSSA," School District of Philadelphia, July 27, 2006, http://www.phila.k12.pa.us/offices/ communications/press- releases/2006/07/11/;
197. see also Brian Gill et. al., State Takeover, School Restructuring, Private Management, and Student Achievement in Philadelphia (Santa Monica, CA, 2007), xii-xiii and passim, http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG533;
198. Susan Snyder, "5th Year of Gains for Phila. Schools," Philadelphia Inquirer, Aug. 8, 2007.
199. Paul Vallas, "CEO Budget Plan," http://www.phila.k12.pa.us/ offices/ceo/budget/ budgetplan.html.
200. Vernon Clark, "March for Slain Students Set for Today," Inquirer, Apr. 10, 2004.
201. Joseph A. Gambardello and Robert Moran, "Teacher Assaulted in School Hallway," Inquirer, Feb. 24, 2007.