The Touring Club Italiano and the nationalization of the Italian bourgeoisie

European History Quarterly

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 371-410

  Bosworth, R J B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

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EID: 61149443143     PISSN: 02656914     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/026569149702700303     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. C.E. Gadda, That Awful Mess on the Via Merulana (London 1985), 214-17. Gadda, perhaps then conserving the splenetic nature of his 'real' response to Fascism, wrote at least one article for Le Vie d'Italia, XLIV (October 1938), on the topic 'La donna si prepara ai suoi compiti coloniali'. It described a course, taught in Milan and attended by 4666 women 'of all social classes'
2. G. Eley, Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck (New Haven 1980), 239
3. For an English-language account, see R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy, the Least of the Great Powers: Italian Foreign Policy Before the First World War (Cambridge 1979), 39-67
4. for a more recent and even more exhaustive account, see D.J. Grange, L'Italie et la Méditerranee (1896-1911). Les fondements d'une politique étrangère, 2 vols (Rome 1994), especially Vol. I, 661-702
5. Vol. II, 1037-108
6. Grange, op. cit., Vol. II, 1012, 1277
7. Richard Webster, the historian who has sought most systematically to transfer the Bielefeld, 'social imperial', model to the practice of Italian foreign policy, would not disagree. See R.A. Webster, Industrial Imperialism in Italy 1908-1915 (Berkeley 1975)
8. For examples of Di San Giuliano's ambition to 'create' nationalist opinion in both the press and big business, see Bosworth, Italy, the Least of the Great Powers, 121-5
9. For this argument, again see both Bosworth and Grange, though Bosworth favours a continuity on to Fascism and Grange does not
10. See, e.g., E. Gentile, Il mito dello stato nuovo dall'antigiolittismo al fascismo (Bari 1982)
11. See, e.g., W.L. Adamson, Avant-garde Florence: From Modernism to Fascism (Cambridge, MA 1993)
12. and cf. his 'The Language of Opposition in Early Twentieth-century Italy: Rhetorical Continuities between Pre-war Florentine Avant-gardism and Mussolini's Fascism', Journal of Modern History, 64 (1992), 22-51
13. The special characteristics of Florence are a natural background to Adamson's work, just as the peculiarity of Milan, as will be seen, is essential to any comprehension of the Touring Club Italiano. For Adamson's reading of the story under Fascism, see his 'Fascism and Culture: Avant-gardes and Secular Religion in the Italian Case', Journal of ontemporary History, 24 (1989), 411-35
14. 'The Culture of Italian Fascism and the Fascist Crisis f Modernity: The Case of Il Selvaggio', Journal of Contemporary History, 30 (1995), 555-76
15. For a fascinating Fascist example of a sense of Tuscany and an interpretation of its history tincturing politics, see M. Toscano, 'Introduzione' to M. Piazzesi, Diario di uno squadrista toscano 1919-1922 (Rome 1981), 32-4
16. For a brief English-language summary, see E. Gentile, 'Fascism in Italian Historiography: In Search of an Individual Historical Identity', Journal of Contemporary History, 21 (1986), 179-208
17. 'Fascism as Political Religion', Journal of Contemporary History, 25 (1990), 229-51
18. For examples, see E. Gentile, La via italiana al totalitarismo: il Partito e lo Stato nel regime fascista (Bari 1995), 135-6, 189-90
19. For an account by a student of Gentile, see M. Fraddosio, "The Fallen Hero: The Myth of Mussolini and Fascist Women in the Italian Social Republic', Journal of Contemporary History, 31 (1996), 99-124
20. Gentile's work is plainly much influenced by that of George Mosse on Germany. See, e.g., G. Mosse, The Nationalisation of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (New York 1975)
21. A historian of the Touring has recently underlined the fact that, already before the First World War, the Club's guides and maps reached at least one Italian household in ten. G. Rosselli, 'Turismo e colonie: il Touring Club Italiano', in G. Gresleri et al., eds, Architettura italiana d'oltremare 1870-1949 (Venice 1993), 107
22. C. Ottaviano, 'Classe agiate e organizzazione del tempo libera', in V. Castronovo, ed., La cassetta degli strumenti: ideologic e modelli sociali nell' industrialismo italiano (Milan 1986), 182
23. See, e.g., R. De Felice, Rosso e Nero (Milan 1995), 32-3
24. There are similar allegations in R. De Felice, Mussolini l'alleato 1940-1943 (Turin 1990)
25. This 'alien' background caused a crisis in the administration of the Club in 1895 and Johnson resigned but was reinstated by the end of the year as a 'resident of Milan'. See V. Vomeri, 'Le origini e i pri i anni di attività del Touring Club Italiano 1894-1905', unpublished thesis (Università degli studi di Milano 1976), 38, 47-8. There would be further trouble over the matter during the First World War
26. Cf. here the ideas in S. Kern, The Culture of Time and Space 1880-1918 (London 1983), a book which, regrettably, has no direct reference to Italy
27. I. Bianchi, L.V. Bertarelli: il fondatore del Touring (Milan 1945), 66. Lombroso concluded that the bicycle stood at the root of most youthful crime
28. Quoted by G. Vota, ed., I sessant'anni del Touring Club Italiano 1894-1954 (Milan 1954), 29
29. For the Church, see ibid., 28. In 1893 the Holy Office declared of bicycles 'non sunt inquietandi'; for the socialists, see S. Pivato, La bicicletta e il sol dell' avvenire: sport e tempo libero nel socialismo delta belle époque (Florence 1992). One socialist had defined sport as 'the violent muscular reaction to the productive inactivity of the wealthy classes' (68), but, by 1913, a Federazione nazionale dei ciclisti rossi had been established (161)
30. Perhaps the most resonant salute to the bicycle as the necessary accompaniment of work would be Vittorio De Sica's post-war, neo-realist and 'national populist' film, Bicycle Thieves
31. For the original usage of this term and its liberal internationalist associations, see F.H. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States (Cambridge 1967), especially 261-3
32. For more on the Italian setting, see R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy and the Wider World 1860-1960 (London 1996), 166-70
33. The Club journal would regularly report on developments in aerial 'sports' and in the aircraft industry, while, as early as 1910, Bertarelli had established a Commissione di Turismo Aereo and was publishing an Annuario dell'Aeronautica. See L.V. Bertarelli, 'Il Touring Club Italiano', Nuova Antologia, fascicolo 1035 (1 March 1915), 28
34. The city directly experienced these apparent perils in the 'fatti di Milano' of 1898. The fact that clericals and socialists were then allied, as they would rarely be thereafter, perhaps confirmed the confident sense that they were historical losers, while the technologizing middle class was the historical winner. For an Englishlanguage account, see L. Tilly, Politics and Class in Milan 1881-1901 (New York 1992)
35. Jonathan Morris, whose work provides the best English-language introduction to the city, notes that Milan's population rose by a factor of three between 1859 and 1915, its commercial enterprises by four, its financial operations by eight and its engineering businesses by 15. The new style Banco Ambrosiano was founded in 1896 and the growth rate of the city's economy averaged 6.7 per cent in the decade from 1898 to 1908. See J. Morris, The Political Economy of Shopkeeping in Milan 1886-1922 (Cambridge 1993), 12, 21
36. In Italian, cf. the fine work of Marco Meriggi, e.g. his Milano borghese: circoli e élites nell'Ottocento (Venice 1992), which is focused on the pre-Risorgimento, and M. Meriggi, 'Vita di circolo e rappresentanza civica nella Milano liberate' in C. Mozzarelli and R. Pavoni, eds, Milano fin de siècle e il caso Bagatti Valsecchi (Milan 1991), 141-61. This paper takes the story up to the birth of the TCI
37. For some examples, see S. Casmirri, 'Culture tecnologica, modelli esteri e società industriale' in G. Fiocca, ed., Borghesi e imprenditori a Milano dall 'unità alla prima guerra mondiale (Ban 1984), 195-203. Along with each association came a journal. In the decade or so before 1900, Casmirri lists L'industria. Rivista tecnica ed economica illustrata (commenced in 1887), II Monitore tecnico, Giornale d'architettura, d'ingegneria civile ed industriale (1894), Rivista tecnica italiana per questioni di Scienza, Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio (1898), L'industria elettrica. Rivista quindicinale tecnica ed economica illustrata (1897), L'Elettrotecnica. Giornale ed atti dell'Associazione elettrotecnica italiana (1898), Rivista tecnica per gli ingegneri civili, industriali e architetti (1893), Rivista tecnica dell' industria e dell'ingegneria (1896), L 'Elettricità. Rivista settimanale illustrata (1882), Bollettino dell'elettricista (1887), L'Annuario scientifico e industriale (1889) and others
38. G. Volpe, L'Italia in cammino: l'ultimo cinquantennio (Milan 1928)
39. His death was much mourned by the Club which also took the opportunity to publish a collection of his speeches and papers. See Touring Club Italiano, L 'Italia e il Touring negli scritti di Luigi Vittorio Bertarelli (Milan 1927)
40. See Viaggio e avventure di un milanese in California: Lettere di Pier Giuseppe Bertarelli 1849-1853 (Milan 1969)
41. For further details see Fiocca, ed., op. cit. and notably the chapter by C. Dau Novelli, 'Modelli di comportamento e ruoli famigliari' (213-89)
42. In this last regard, see, e.g., L.V. Bertarelli, Duemila grotte: quarant'anni di esplorazioni nella Venezia Giulia (Milan 1926). Inevitably one of the caves in the border region near Tolmino was known as the 'Grotta di Dante'. For more on the myth of Dante, see Bosworth, Italy and the Wider World 1860-1960, op. cit., 153-5
43. The TCI archives, Milan, (hereafter TCIM) 360/A, contain a pamphlet produced by the Club in 1914, laboriously explaining the rules of football and admitting that the British were the present experts, while insisting that the game had really originated in Florence. See TCI, II giuoco del calcio (football) (Milan 1914)
44. For a splendid period account, see A. Mosso, Mens sano in corpore sano (Milan 1903). He notes that it was in 1897 that Italy's Comitato nazionale centrale per l'educazione fisica ed i giuochi ginnici was founded
45. Rivista mensile del Touring, XVI (June 1910), declared that this was another area of Italian backwardness in need of correction. In the January number of that year there was praise for shorter hair. It would make life easier, it was explained, for a woman traveller by car or by plane
46. The use of th s French term in some cases until the 1920s was an indication, of course, of the imitative nature of 'tourism' for Italians
47. G. Bozzini, 'Turismo insieme: l'associazionismo e il TCI' in Touring Club Italiano, 90 anni di turismo in Italia 1894-1984 (Milan 1984), 34-5. Bozzini says that, by 1906, there were 242,000 bicycles in Italy, 5000 motorcycles and 4000 cars. in January 1909 the bicycle tax was again cut after TCI pressure. See Rivista mensile del Touring, XV (January 1909). Questions had been asked in the Chamber of Deputies by such TCI members as Silvio Crespi and Pietro Lanza di Scalea
48. Bertarelli would claim to have put up 12,000 signs between 1919 and the start of 1922, with the help of FIAT, Pirelli and numerous volunteers. See Le Vie d'Italia, XXVIII (March 1922). For a further example of the Touring's friendly dispostion towards FIAT, see Bertarelli's praise of its achievements in wartime, Le Vie d'Italia, XXIV (May-June 1918)
49. It was perhaps predictable that the Touring's cartographical work should also produce conflict and rivalry, for example with the De Agostini firm of Rome and, later, Novara. For information on an extended law case between the two, see TCIM 942. For further detail, see T. Vola, 'La cartografia turistica: strumento per viaggiare e per conoscere', unpublished thesis (Università degli studi di Milano 1991), 157-61. Among the TCI's eventual enemies was the geographer, Giotto Dainelli, who, in 1938, wrote privately to Mussolini complaining of the 'ridiculous' tardiness of the CTI's work. See Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Segretaria particolare del Duce (hereafter SPD), 1046/509170, 25 June 1938, Dainelli memorandum
50. See, e.g., the memorandum of 22 June 1940 by Club secretary, Attilio Gerelli, 'La Consociazione Turistica Italiana e la Guerra', in TCIM 919/1, which pointed out that the CTI/TCI's devotion to accurate mapping had always been viewed as possessing a military purpose
51. See L.V. Bertarelli, Guida-itinerario dell'Italia (Milan 1895)
52. For further detail see G. Rosselli, 'Nascita dell'editoria turistica italiana', Storia in Lombardia, 1-2 (1995), 273-88
53. To give but one example, see Consociazione Turistica Italiana, Albania (Milan 1940), which had a certain period emphasis as it talked about the burdens of empire that Italy was assuming there. The CTI was sure that 'the huge task which Fascist Italy has taken on will be carried through in the Fascist manner', as the Albanians, too, learned to 'believe, obey, fight' (117); cf., e.g., TCI, Guida d'Italia: possedimenti e colonie: hole Egee, Tripolitania, Cirenaica, Eritrea, Somalia (Milan 1929), printed in an edition of 400,000 and distributed free to members
54. Rivista mensile del Touring, VI (August 1901)
55. Le Vie d'Italia, XXX (January 1925)
56. Perhaps this is what Giovanni Agnelli also meant in his famous definition of FIAT's relationship with government. For the background, see Bosworth, Italy and the Wider World 1860-1960, op. cit., 83-5
57. TCI, L 'Italia e il Touring negli scritti di Luigi Vittorio Bertarelli, op. cit., 3, 6
58. For an example of the reiteration of this phrase, see TCI, Attraverso I'ltalia: illustrazione delle regioni italiane, Vol. 1, Piemonte (Milan 1930), 8, where the wording has become 'indurre gli italiani a conoscere I'ltalia'. The Attraverso l'ltalia series would continue publication over the next years and had reached Umbria by 1943-4. See Consociazione Turistica Italiana, Attraverso l'ltalia: illustrazione delle regioni italiane Vol. XII, Umbria (Milan 1944). In its own ambiguous definition of a nation, this volume emphasized the absolute distinctiveness of Umbria
59. Rivista mensile del Touring, XVI (January 1911)
60. Rivista mensile del Touring, XIII (February 1907)
61. A. Bertarelli, 'Il Guidone del Touring neU'Eritrea' in ibid. The TCI also had been publishing Luigi Barzini (senior)'s reports of the Peking to Paris car race of the year before and had carried some of the marvellous photographs taken en route. The leader of the victorious Italian team, Prince Scipione Borghese, was a TCI member. See, in English, L. Barzini, Peking to Paris: A Journey across Two Continents in 1907 (London 1972). Photography had been and would remain a natural interest of the TCI which regularly sponsored photographic contests for members, advertisements of equipment, etc. In a pious article, it also assisted the 'invention' of the Italian monarchy by revealing that King Victor Emmanuel III and Queen Elena were busy and able photographers (and, with their 'typical' modesty, used 'ordinary cameras'). Royal photos would display the royal family as dressed in bathing costumes. Rivista mensile del Touring, XIX (April 1913)
62. Rivista mensile del Touring, XV (September 1909)
63. Moneta was one of the less distinguished Nobel winners. For some Englishlanguage introduction to his ideas, see E.A. and L.T. Mowrer, Umano and the Price of Lasting Peace (New York 1973)
64. Rivista mensile del Touring, XV (April 1909)
65. Rivista mensile del Touring, XVII (November 1911)
66. Rivista mensile del Touring, XIX (January, May 1913)
67. Rivista mensile del Touring, XX (February 1914)
68. Bertarelli, 'Il Touring Club Italiano', 47
69. Rivista mensile del Touring, XX (August 1914), noted the suspension of this activity given the gravity of the international situation. The same issue typically offered instruction from the US about improving road surfaces and described the spread of golf, even into Italy. "The game looks easy but actually takes a very long learning process', Touring readers were informed. The sport might, however, attract a Latin clientele because of the opportunity it gave to flirt with female partners. However, the Club's cosmopolitanism would not always be too reliable on golf. In 1932, an author in the TCI journal thought golf a game brought to Scotland by William the Conqueror in 1027. Le Vie d'Italia, XXXVIII (March 1932)
70. E. Bertarelli, Il pensiero scientif co tedesco, la civiltà e la guerra (Milan 1916), 42, 48. More practically, he added, that these developments meant that Italy could never surrender its aspirations to the Alps and the Adriatic and all must be ready to die for the national cause (49)
71. TCIM 920, undated memorandum, perhaps from 1917. The purpose of the propaganda, noted Bertarelli, was to convince foreigners of the grandiosity of Italy's war
72. Le Vied'Italia, XXIV (November-December 1918)
73. See, e.g., Rivista mensile del Touring, XXIII (October 1917). The relevant article was written by Giuseppe Belluzzo, in the 1920s, to be a (moderate) Fascist Minister of the National Economy
74. Rivista mensile del Touring, XXI (November 1915)
75. Le Vie d'Italia, XXIV (March-April 1918) reported that a membership of 161, 969 in 1916 had risen to 175, 720 in 1917
76. For introduction to the view that tourism was indeed an industry, see Bosworth, Italy and the Wider World 1860-1960, Chap. 8
77. Rivista mensile del Touring, XXIII (January 1917)
78. A reiterated theme was Italian backwardness. According to Bertarelli, foreigners already understood the contemporary need for 'association'. See, e.g., TCIM 920, undated 64 page 'Note sul presente quadro di lavoro del sottogruppo "turismo" del Gruppo XX della Commissione pel dopoguerra'
79. For a typical example, see Le Vie d'ltalia, XXV (March-April 1919), where Bertarelli contemplated the nationalization of hotels, if not of the whole tourist industry
80. See, e.g., Le Vie d'ltalia, XXVI (February 1920)
81. Le Vie d'ltalia, XXV (May-June 1919). In the next years, the Club would publish a long series of guides to the battlefronts. See, e.g., Touring Club Italiano, Sui campi di battaglia del medio e basso Isonzo: guida storico-turistica (Milan 1927)
82. Sui i campi di battaglia: il Monte Grappa: guida storico-turistica (Milan 1928)
83. Sui campi di battag ia: il Piave e il Montello: guida storico-turistica (Milan 1929)
84. Sui campi di battaglia: il Cadore, la Carnia, l'Alto Isonzo: guida storico-turistica (Milan 1929). It was wholly typical of the TCI that these guides were decidedly didactic in tone declaring, for example, that unschooled visitors had not been instructed enough in their pilgrimages and urging amendment. Inevitably such worthy publications carried salutes to 'the Undefeated Duce of the Undefeated Armies' and to King Victor Emmanuel III
85. Le Vie d'ltalia, XXVIII (November 1922). The last Liberal Prime Minister, Luigi Facta, had been planning a major celebration of 4 November, as the fourth anniversary of the 'glorious' victory at Vittorio Veneto and in which, for example, D'Annunzio was to participate. Facta was thus making a belated attempt to harness both nationalism and memory of the war in the non-Fascist cause
86. Le Vie d'ltalia, XXVI (June, October 1920)
87. Le Vie d'Itali, XXXI (January 1925)
88. He would also be one of the first major historians of Fascism. See L. Salvatorelli and G. Mira, Storia d'ltalia nel periodo fascista, 2 vols (Turin 1964)
89. TCIM 120/1, 22 April, 23 April 1926, Bognetti to Bonardi
90. For the Duce's membership, see SPD 1046/509170, 11 February 1926, Bognetti to R. Mussolini. On his scheda he modestly defined himself as a journalist and gave a home address in Milan. Naturally, Le Vie d'ltalia, XXXV (January 1929), was at pains to publicize any praise it received from Arnaldo Mussolini. Bognetti also hastened to acknowledge politely any favourable references to the TCI published in II Popolo d'ltalia. See TCIM 100/3, 21 September 1928, Bognetti to A. Mussolini
91. For a narration, see Bosworth, 'Tourist Planning in Fascist Italy and the Limits of a Totalitarian Culture', op. cit., 4, 79
92. See Le Vie d'ltalia, XXXIII (October 1927); XXXIV (March 1928). It was especially embarrassing that The Times had picked up the original criticism and 'misinterpreted' it in its issue of 10 Janua y 1928
93. Le Vie d'ltalia, XXXVII (May 1932) did agree that Italian should be the main language featured on Italian hotel menus
94. In 1928, the Club promised always to consult the local podestà before making such appointments in the future. TCIM 120/1, 22 March 1928, Bognetti to Bonardi. Bognetti added cryptically: 'the most difficult cases are with those of our representatives who are regularly enrolled in the Fascist Party and are of decidely Fascist sentiments, yet are not welcome to the local [Fascist] Authority'. Carlo Bonardi also advised, after a trip to Hungary, that any TCI representatives in that fine country should in future be of Italian nationality and not Hungarian. 9 September 1928, Bonardi to Gerelli
95. Perhaps the most evident of these was the idea that emigrants should be attracted back to Italy to experience a 'bagno d'italianita'. See, e.g., Le Vie d'ltalia, XXXV (April 1929). The Touring had started publishing Le Vie d'ltalia e del mondo in 1933. A decade earlier, Bertarelli had begun a special publication directed at Latin America. See his characteristic article, 'Per l'espansione del Touring nell' America Latina', Le Vie d'Italia e dell' America Latina, Vol. 1 (January 1924). Similarly, Bognetti himself can be found urging club members to travel in greater numbers to Corsica, Le Vie d'Italia, XXXV (August 1929). Even before the arrival of Fascism to power, Gozo was defined as 'the farthest flung piece of the Nation'. Le Vie d'ltalia, XXVII (November 1921). In return, the TCI must have been pleased when, in 1929, the Club was officially hailed as an example of practicality. See Il Popolo d'ltalia, 27 July 1929
96. See, e.g., TCIM 120/1, 19 April 1928, C. Bonardi to Gerelli reporting that the spread of the Balilla did not have negative implications for the TCI. Cf. also praise from Turati, reported in Le Vie d'ltalia, XXXV (January 1929), and noting that the Secretary of the Fascist Party possessed life membership of the Club
97. TCIM 120/1, 30 March 1928, C. Bonardi to Gerelli
98. See, e.g., Il Popolo d'ltalia, 21 May 1936, reporting a Bonardi speech to the Senate
99. For an example, see the opinion of one commentator that the USA was the place 'where anything is still possible'. Le Vie d'ltalia e del Mondo, I (June 1933)
100. TCIM 100/2, undated memorandum, perhaps from 1932
101. Gentile, La via italiana al totalitarismo, 206, 225
102. TCIM 401/1, 26 February 1935, Gerelli to Bonomi; 11 April 1935, C. Bonardi pro-memoria. In September that year the Club had to apologize after publishing what could be read as an Anglophile piece. 14 September 1935, M. Bertarelli to Bonomi. There were further exchanges on the process of censorship. See, e.g., 16 November 1935, Bonardi to Bonomi; 25 November 1935, Bonomi to Bonardi. In 1937 Bonardi spoke in the Senate about the 'perfect order' of Italy's tourist industry. See Le Vie d'ltalia, XLIII (July 1937); cf. also Il Popolo d'Italia, 4 June 1937, Bonardi interview
103. TCIM 100/1, 19 July 1937, Bonardi draft letter, arguing that Club and Touring had their roots in the Latin words globus and tornus. He also more reasonably stated that familiarity with the activities of the TCI had in any case assimilated the Club's name
104. TCIM 100/3, 28 September 1937, Bonardi to Gray. It is doubtful if Bonardi's thanks to Gray in this letter were especially heartfelt
105. TCIM 100/2, 14 November 1935 memorandum
106. Solmi had joined the TCI board in 1926. Solmi was a patriotic historian and politician who, in 1935, became Fascist Minister of Justice
107. TCIM 100/1, 19 July 1937, Bonardi draft letter; 100/3, 19 July 1937, Bonardi to Mussolini. A file also exists of protest letters from club members at the name change
108. TCIM 100/2 has the press reports
109. TCIM 100/3, Gerelli to Bonardi. Gerelli added, in characteristic fashion, that the CTI had reliable friends in Benni and in Dino Alfieri, the successor of Ciano at the Ministry of Popular Culture
110. I. Calvino, The Road to San Giovanni (London 1993), 56-8
111. The old name would be resumed as soon as the war ended. See, e.g., TCIM 100, 27 June 1945, minute
112. See, e.g., Le Vie d'Italia e del Mondo, IV (November 1936)
113. As late as March 1943, it published a Guida delta Tunisia, SPD 1046/509170, 16 March 1943, Bonardi to De Cesare
114. TCIM 854, 3 January 1940, Gerelli to Corrias; 919/1, 22 June 1940, Gerelli memorandum
115. See, e.g., Le Vie d'Italia, XLVIII (February 1942)
116. To give but one example, in 1942-3, the CTI, with its traditional commitment to 'information', was still organizing lecture programmes on tourism. See TCIM 401/1, 9 December 1942, Toffano to Gerelli
117. TCIM 120/1, 18 August 1943, Gerelli to Bonardi; 913/1, 5 October 1943, Gerelli memorandum
118. TCIM 921, undated memorandum. Bonardi also typically advised that the CTI should do its best to preserve its patrimony from the terror of war. 120/1, 13 February 1944, Bonardi to G. Bertarelli
119. TCIM 120/1, 14 February, 5 March 1945, both Bonardi to Gerelli
120. For perhaps the oddest instance, see the article by 'Giuseppe Gentilli', 'Perth: capitale dell'Occidente d'oro', Le Vie d'Italia e del Mondo, X (October 1942). Joseph Gentilli, a young and Jewish geographer, was by then a refugee in Western Australia, and thus was resident in a country at war with Italy
121. TCIM 120/1, 30 April 1945, Bonardi to Gerelli
122. TCIM 120/1, 8 May 1945
123. In the historiography of the end of the war, the great example here is Freidrich Meinecke and his re-writing of the past in The German Catastrophe. For some commentary, see R.J.B. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War 1945-1990 (London 1993), 61-3
124. See, e.g., Le Vie d'Italia, LII (August 1946)
125. I should like to express my thanks for assistance in the research of this paper to the President of the TCI, to the staff of its fine Centro di documentazione and to Giovanna Rosselli. I am especially grateful for permission to print the accompanying photographs. A small taste of the TCI's quite magnificent photograph collection is available on CD Rom - see TCI, Italia 1860-1915: dall'archivio storico and TCI, Italia 1915-1940: dall'archivio storico, both published in Milan, 1995