Women educators and the confucian tradition in Meiji Japan (1868-1912): Miwada Masako and Atomi Kakei [1]

Women's History Review

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 579-602

  Mehl, Margaret ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61149423314     PISSN: 09612025     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09612020100200302     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. Sally Hastings (1991) Women Educators of the Meiji Era and the Making of Modern Japan, International Journal of Social Education, 6, pp. 83-94. Examples quoted by Hastings can be found in Mikiso Hane (1988) Reflections on the Way to the Gallows: rebel women in prewar Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press) and in Sharon L. Sievers (1983) Flowers in Salt: the beginnings of feminist consciousness in modem Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press)
2. See also, Sheldon Garon (1997) Integrating Women into Public Life: women's groups and in Sheldon Garon, Molding Japanese Minds: the state in everyday life, pp. 115-145 (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Even the 'rebel women' could be steeped in the classical Chinese tradition
3. Fukuda Hideko (1865-1927) is said to have given a talk on the Abstracts of the Eighteen Histories (Shiba Shi lue, China, early twelfth century) before the prefectural governors and members of the educational committee of Okayama when she was twelve; Hane, Reflections, pp. 29-50
4. Fujii Mizue (1919) Atomi Kakei sensei jitsuden. Hana no shitamichi, p. 217 (Atomi Kakeiden hensan iinkai, Atomi gakuen)
5. An example is given by Patricia Fister (1991) Female Bunjin: the life of poet-painter Ema Saikō, in Gail Bernstein (Ed.) Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945, pp. 108-130 (Berkeley: University of California Press)
6. On Shimada Utako, see Shoji Masako (1971) Women Educators who Contributed to the Education of Women (1), Education in Japan, 6, pp. 69-83
7. Karasawa Tomitarō (1979) Joshi gakusei no rekishi, pp. 273-280 (Mokujisha)
8. For information on girls' education, see Byron Marshall (1994) Learning to be Modern: Japanese political discourse on education, pp. 73-80 (Boulder: Westview Press); Karasawa, ibid
9. Asakura Haruhiko (1969) Meiji kansei jiten, p. 459 (Tōkyō dō)
10. Karasawa, Joshi gakusei, pp. 13-14
11. Miwada Masako sensei gojū nensai kinen shuppankai (Ed.) (1977) Baika no fu: Miwada Masako den (Miwada gakuen); Karasawa Tomio (1984) Zusetsu kyoiku jinbutsu jiten, Vol. 2, pp. 368-373 (3 vols, Kyūsei); Miwada gakuen hyakunenshi henshū kikaku iinkai (Ed.) (1988) Miwada gakuen hyakunenshi (Miwada gakuen). It is not entirely clear who Masako's biological father was; her mother was married twice and Masako entered into the register as her second husband's daughter; Hyakunenshi, p. 3
12. Printed in Hyakunenshi, pp. 366-371
13. Details in Hyakunenshi, pp. 44-45
14. Aikawa Miho (1937) Aoyama no ohaka mae ni te, Miwada kōtō gakkō kōyūkai zasshi, 66, pp. 51-53. Author's translation
15. Karasawa, Zusetsu kyōiku 2, pp. 183-184
16. For a summary of Miwada's thought on education, see Hyakunenshi, pp. 22-37. See also, Uchimizaki Takako (1985) Miwada Masako ni okeru joshi kyōiku shisōno kenkyū
17. Miwada Masako (1894) Joshi no honbun, p. 210 (Kokkōsha)
18. 'Heaven did not create men above men nor put men under men' (quoted in Herbert Passin (1982 reprint edition) Society and Education in Japan, p. 205 (Tokyo: Kodansha International; first published 1965)
19. Miwada Masako (1902) Jokun no shiori, p. 174 (Ōkura shoten). Author's translation
20. Jokun no shiori, pp. 153-154. Author's translation
21. Joshi no honbun, p. 55
22. Miwada Masako (1897) Joshi kyōiku yōgen, pp. 139-57 (Kokkōsha)
23. Joshi kyōiku yogen, pp. 135-136
24. Takahashi Shōsuke (1990 reprint edition) Atomi Kakei joshiden (Atomi Kakeiden hensan iinkai, Atomi gakuen 1932)
25. Shibukawa Hisako (1970) Kindai Nihon joseishi 1: kyōiku, pp. 106-121 (Kashima shuppan)
26. Karasawa, Zusetsu kyōiku, 3, pp. 882-890
27. Atomi Kakei's life is briefly treated in two articles in English: Shoji Masako, 'Women Educators', pp. 69-83
28. Tanimura Issa (1927) A Glimpse of Miss Kakei Atomi, Kyūsen, 74(5), pp. 5-7; 75(10), po. 5-10; 76(2), pp. 4-8 (originally appeared in The Double Star)
29. Quoted from Nakano Kazuo (1995) Atomi Kakei kyōiku shisō, p. 43 (Atomi gakuen)
30. Atomi gakuen (Ed.) (1965) Atomi gakuen kyūjūnenshi, p. 24 (Atomi gakuen)
31. Details about the history of Atomi gakuen in Atomi gakuen kyūjūnenshi and Atomi gakuen (Ed.) (1975) Atomi gakuen hyakunenshi (Atomi gakuen)
32. Fujii, Atomi Kakei sensei, pp. 31-32. Author's translation
33. Atomi Kakei (1915) Oriorigusa (Ed. and published by Jitsugyō no Nihonsha)
34. Shōrai no Nihon fujin wa ikani subeki ka (1914) Oriorigusa, pp. 1-8
35. Kiken naru gendai fujin no shisō (1913) Oriorigusa, pp. 16-21
36. Shoseki no sentaku to dokusho no shikata (1911) Oriorigusa, pp. 70-75; The Greater Learning for Women (Onna daigaku), attributed to Kaibara Ekken (1630-1714), is the classic treatise on proper behaviour for the well-bred woman, advocating complete submission to the husband and his family. The Four Books for Women {Onna shisho) were compiled by Tsujihara Genpo (1622-?) for the moral education of women; based on Chinese works, they mainly present the lives of virtuous women from Chinese history and rules of conduct for women in different situations. Kohonsaku: work in the tradition of national learning (kokugaku); the main body discusses ancient Japanese language and literature, but the appendix deals with the Analects of Confucius
37. Dai Yamato damashii no yūshutsu chōka (1917) Kyūsen, 50, p. 1. Author's translation
38. Nakano Kazuo (1986) Kindai joshi kyōikushijō ni okeru Atomi Kakei. Kaigaku zengo no shisōteki haikei, Atomi gakuen chūgakkō/kōtō gakkō kiyō, 14, pp. 1-16
39. See Sharon H. Nolte & Sally Ann Hastings (1991) The Meiji State's Policy towards Women, 1890-1910, in Gail Bernstein (Ed.) Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945, pp. 151-174 (Berkeley: University of California Press). The 'good wife' component dominated until the 1930s, when it was eclipsed by motherhood
40. see Kathleen S. Uno (1993) Death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'? in Andrew Gordon (Ed.) Postwar Japan as History, pp. 293-322 (Berkeley: University of California Press)
41. On the role of kangaku in Meiji Japan, see Margaret Mehl, (2000) Chinese Learning (kangaku) in the Meiji Period (1868-1912), History, 85, pp. 49-68
42. Garon, 'Integrating Women into Public Life', pp. 115-145
43. Takahashi, Atomi Kakei joshiden, p. 31
44. Hastings, 'Women Educators', pp. 90-91
45. On Tsuda, see Barbara Rose (1992) Tsuda Umeko and Women's Education in Japan (London: Yale University Press)
46. Yoshiko Furuki (1991) The White Plum: a biograpny of Ume Tsuda, pioneer in the higher education of Japanese women (New York: Weatherhill)
47. Rose, Tsuda Umeko, p. 158
48. See also, Furuki, White Plum, p. 134
49. Joshi kyōiku yōgen, p. 153
50. Tanahashi Ayako (1914) Chikoku yori wa seika, Kyūsen, 40, pp. 44-47; on Tanahashi
51. see Hastings, 'Women Educators', pp. 84-86. More on this point in Nolte & Hastings, 'The Meiji State's Policy'