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Volumn 14, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 349-371

Forests, farms and peasants: Agrarian economy and ecological change in the U.P. hills, 1815—1947

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EID: 61049501216     PISSN: 02576430     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/025764309801400210     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (2)

References (141)
  • 1
    • 84992918584 scopus 로고
    • For a general history of forestry in the region see, (henceforth HDNWP), 3 vols, 86, rpt., Delhi, 1982: see, District Gazetteers and Forest Working Plans of the region
    • For a general history of forestry in the region see Himalayan Districts of North-Western Provinces (henceforth HDNWP), 3 vols, 1884–86, rpt., Delhi, 1982: see Vol. I, Part II, pp. 845–79; District Gazetteers and Forest Working Plans of the region;
    • (1884) Himalayan Districts of North-Western Provinces , vol.1 , pp. 845-879
  • 2
    • 0004294563 scopus 로고
    • 3 vols, London, 26. For details of regulations and settlement of rights see June 1880, A progs 1 to 14, Agr., Rev., Comm. (Forest), National Archives of India, New Delhi (henceforth NAI); Forest Settlement in Kumaun and Garhwal, 1879–1895, J.E. Goudge, file 2/1894–95, Box 59, Commissioner's Office Records (henceforth COR), Regional Archives (henceforth RA) Naini Tal
    • E.P. Stebbing, Forests of India, 3 vols, London, 1922–26. For details of regulations and settlement of rights see June 1880, A progs 1 to 14, Agr., Rev., Comm. (Forest), National Archives of India, New Delhi (henceforth NAI); Forest Settlement in Kumaun and Garhwal, 1879–1895, J.E. Goudge, file 2/1894–95, Box 59, Commissioner's Office Records (henceforth COR), Regional Archives (henceforth RA) Naini Tal;
    • (1922) Forests of India
    • Stebbing, E.P.1
  • 3
    • 84992918621 scopus 로고
    • Forest Settlement Report by, 95, Forest Department (henceforth FD) file in the English Record Room Collectorate (henceforth ERR) Pauri Garhwal; Progress Report on DPF, June 1898, prog. 27, FD file 1/1897–98, Box 63, COR, RA, Naini Tal; The Report of the Kumaun Forest Grievances Committee, June 1922, A progs 19–24, Agr. Rev. Comm (Forest), NAI
    • Forest Settlement Report by Joshi, Basta 1891–95, Forest Department (henceforth FD) file in the English Record Room Collectorate (henceforth ERR) Pauri Garhwal; Progress Report on DPF, June 1898, prog. 27, FD file 1/1897–98, Box 63, COR, RA, Naini Tal; The Report of the Kumaun Forest Grievances Committee, June 1922, A progs 19–24, Agr. Rev. Comm (Forest), NAI.
    • (1891) Basta
    • Joshi1
  • 4
    • 84992891790 scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch of Kumaun
    • in J.H. Batten, ed., Agra, reproduced from Asiatic Researches
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch of Kumaun’, in J.H. Batten, ed., Official Reports on the Province of Kumaun, Agra, 1851, pp. 12–13, reproduced from Asiatic Researches, Vol. 16.
    • (1851) Official Reports on the Province of Kumaun , vol.16 , pp. 12-13
    • Traill1
  • 6
    • 80054128914 scopus 로고
    • Final Settlement Report of Kumaun District
    • henceforth SRK
    • Batten, ‘Final Settlement Report of Kumaun District’ (henceforth SRK, 1846), in Official Report, p. 259.
    • (1846) Official Report , pp. 259
    • Batten1
  • 7
    • 84992848834 scopus 로고
    • Settlement Report of Garhwal
    • henceforth SRG, attached to his Letter to Commissioner (henceforth Commr), Kumaun, 10 August 1842
    • Batten, ‘Settlement Report of Garhwal’ (henceforth SRG, 1842), attached to his Letter to Commissioner (henceforth Commr), Kumaun, 10 August 1842, in Official Report, p. 159.
    • (1842) Official Report , pp. 159
    • Batten1
  • 8
    • 80054172191 scopus 로고
    • General Statement No. 1
    • Census of the North-Westem Provinces, 1865, Vol. II, General Statement No. 1, pp. 2–3.
    • (1865) Census of the North-Westem Provinces , vol.2 , pp. 2-3
  • 11
    • 84992891769 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1842, p. 126–27.
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 126-127
  • 12
    • 80054172188 scopus 로고
    • SRK, 1873, Vol. I, p. 3.
    • (1873) SRK , vol.1 , pp. 3
  • 13
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • 42. The number of houses are given in Statement A, Appendix (p. iii). The number of houses were multiplied by 6.5 to arrive at the figures of population. The figures exclude the small population of towns and camps as these figures are not given separately for Garhwal and Kumaun
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, pp. 12–13, 42. The number of houses are given in Statement A, Appendix (p. iii). The number of houses were multiplied by 6.5 to arrive at the figures of population. The figures exclude the small population of towns and camps as these figures are not given separately for Garhwal and Kumaun.
    • Traill1
  • 14
    • 84956450844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 55
    • Appendices pp. iv–v, 55.
    • Appendices , pp. iv-v
  • 15
    • 0009009309 scopus 로고
    • This British opinion is expressed in all Settlement Reports, Gazetteers and other important documents. No doubt, many people must have fled due to Gorkha invasion but there is no reason to believe that the Gorkha would not have liked people to return and cultivate, thereby contributing to land revenue. However, local people subsequently internalized colonial conceptions in writing about the oppressive nature of Gorkha rule. See, Almora
    • This British opinion is expressed in all Settlement Reports, Gazetteers and other important documents. No doubt, many people must have fled due to Gorkha invasion but there is no reason to believe that the Gorkha would not have liked people to return and cultivate, thereby contributing to land revenue. However, local people subsequently internalized colonial conceptions in writing about the oppressive nature of Gorkha rule. See B.D. Pandey, Kumaun ka Itihas, Almora, 1937, pp. 397–402.
    • (1937) Kumaun ka Itihas , pp. 397-402
    • Pandey, B.D.1
  • 16
    • 84992879589 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1842, pp. 114–15.
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 114-115
  • 17
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • 56
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, p. 42, 56.
    • Traill1
  • 18
    • 0004140483 scopus 로고
    • Indian Historical Demography: Developments and Prospects
    • Many scholars suggest a high growth rate for this period. See, in idem, ed., London
    • Many scholars suggest a high growth rate for this period. See Tim Dyson, ‘Indian Historical Demography: Developments and Prospects’, in idem, ed., India's Historical Demography: Studies in Famine, Disease and Society, London, 1989, pp. 1–15.
    • (1989) India's Historical Demography: Studies in Famine, Disease and Society , pp. 1-15
    • Dyson, T.1
  • 19
    • 84992847430 scopus 로고
    • Mechanism of Demographic and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh, 1800–1900
    • See also, Sumit Guha also suggests a high growth rate for the Deccan during this period
    • See also Simon Commander, ‘Mechanism of Demographic and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh, 1800–1900’, in India's Historical Demography: Studies in Famine, Disease and Society, 1989, pp. 1–15 Sumit Guha also suggests a high growth rate for the Deccan during this period.
    • (1989) India's Historical Demography: Studies in Famine, Disease and Society , pp. 1-15
    • Commander, S.1
  • 24
    • 84905797351 scopus 로고
    • (henceforth DCHB) Dehradun, Allahabad, 1955, For figures relating to Dehradun proper, see also the letter of Moreland to Commr, Meerut, 20 August 1901, in February, 1902, A Progs 17–18, file 418/1901 Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI
    • District Census Handbook (henceforth DCHB) Dehradun, 1951, Allahabad, 1955. For figures relating to Dehradun proper, see also the letter of Moreland to Commr, Meerut, 20 August 1901, in February, 1902, A Progs 17–18, file 418/1901 Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI.
    • (1951) District Census Handbook
  • 25
    • 84992786066 scopus 로고
    • Report on the Bhabar of the Kumaun Proper
    • dated 10 February, in idem, see Abstract Statement No. IV. The 1903 figures is average cultivation figure for the Bhabar for five years, ending 1903
    • Batten, ‘Report on the Bhabar of the Kumaun Proper’, dated 10 February 1846, in idem, Official Reports: see Abstract Statement No. IV. The 1903 figures is average cultivation figure for the Bhabar for five years, ending 1903.
    • (1846) Official Reports
    • Batten1
  • 26
    • 80054128376 scopus 로고
    • Allahabad, For details on Bhabar see also letter of Chief Secy, Govt. NWP & Oudh to Secy, Govt of India (henceforth GOI), 6 November 1899, in March 1900 A progs 1–3, file 391/1899, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI; J.S. Meston, Director, Land Record and Agriculture to Joint Secy, Board of Rev., NWP & Oudh, 2 October 1898, in February 1900 A progs 5–6, file 66/1900, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI; Pauw, Assessment Report on the Settled Villages of the Garhwal Bhabar, dated 3 December 1895, in May 1896, B progs 48, file 106/1896, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI
    • Walton, Naini Tal Gazetteer, Allahabad, 1903, p. 58. For details on Bhabar see also letter of Chief Secy, Govt. NWP & Oudh to Secy, Govt of India (henceforth GOI), 6 November 1899, in March 1900 A progs 1–3, file 391/1899, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI; J.S. Meston, Director, Land Record and Agriculture to Joint Secy, Board of Rev., NWP & Oudh, 2 October 1898, in February 1900 A progs 5–6, file 66/1900, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI; Pauw, Assessment Report on the Settled Villages of the Garhwal Bhabar, dated 3 December 1895, in May 1896, B progs 48, file 106/1896, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI.
    • (1903) Naini Tal Gazetteer , pp. 58
    • Walton1
  • 27
    • 84992786067 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Administration of Tarai Pargana
    • (henceforth Selections), IInd series, Meston to Joint Secy, Board of Rev., NWP & Oudh, 2 October 1898, in February 1900, A progs 5–6, file 66/1900, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.)
    • ‘Administration of Tarai Pargana’, in Selections from the Records of the Government of the North-Westem Provinces (henceforth Selections), IInd series, Vol. II, pp. 173–83; Meston to Joint Secy, Board of Rev., NWP & Oudh, 2 October 1898, in February 1900, A progs 5–6, file 66/1900, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.)
    • Selections from the Records of the Government of the North-Westem Provinces , vol.2 , pp. 173-183
  • 28
    • 84992790247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Secy, Board of Rev. to Chief Secy, United Provinces (UP), 17 October 1903, in December 1903, A progs 20–21, file 411/1903, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.) NAI
    • NAI, pp. 11–16; Secy, Board of Rev. to Chief Secy, United Provinces (UP), 17 October 1903, in December 1903, A progs 20–21, file 411/1903, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.) NAI;
    • NAI , pp. 11-16
  • 29
    • 84940493761 scopus 로고
    • A Few Notes on the Subject of Kumaon and Rohilcund Turaee
    • dated 9 April, in idem
    • Batten, ‘A Few Notes on the Subject of Kumaon and Rohilcund Turaee’, dated 9 April 1844, in idem, Official Reports, pp. 161–86.
    • (1844) Official Reports , pp. 161-186
    • Batten1
  • 30
    • 84992790268 scopus 로고
    • Naini Tal District, Allahabad, see Introduction
    • DCHB, Naini Tal District, Allahabad, 1951: see Introduction.
    • (1951) DCHB
  • 31
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, pp. 1–2.
    • Traill1
  • 32
    • 84992864814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Report on the Bhote Mehals of Kumaon
    • in Batten, reproduced from Asiatic Researches
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Report on the Bhote Mehals of Kumaon’, pp. 70–106, in Batten, Official Reports, reproduced from Asiatic Researches, Vol. 17.
    • Official Reports , vol.17 , pp. 70-106
    • Traill1
  • 35
    • 80054187774 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Report on the Bhabar of Kumaon Proper
    • Batten, ‘Report on the Bhabar of Kumaon Proper’.
    • Batten1
  • 36
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • 36
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, pp. 16, 36;
    • Traill1
  • 37
    • 84992887407 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1842, p. 124;
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 124
  • 38
    • 84992906612 scopus 로고
    • 21
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 16–18, 21.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 16-18
  • 39
    • 84992785997 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 91–92.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 91-92
  • 40
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • 35–36
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, pp. 16, 35–36;
    • Traill1
  • 41
    • 84992790222 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, p. 18.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 18
  • 42
    • 84992873209 scopus 로고
    • 91–92
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 18–19, 91–92;
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 18-19
  • 43
    • 84992844784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (henceforth Assessment of Naini Tal Hill Pattis), File 1, 1900–01, Box 69, COR, RA, Naini Tal
    • Goudge, Report on the Assessment of the Naini Tal District Hill Pattis (henceforth Assessment of Naini Tal Hill Pattis), File 1, 1900–01, Box 69, COR, RA, Naini Tal, p. 5.
    • Report on the Assessment of the Naini Tal District Hill Pattis , pp. 5
    • Goudge1
  • 44
    • 84992867405 scopus 로고
    • 19, 91–92
    • SRG, 1896 pp. 17, 19, 91–92.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 17
  • 46
    • 84992849802 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • IInd series
    • Administration of Tarai Pargana, Selections, IInd series, Vol. II, pp. 173–83;
    • Selections , vol.2 , pp. 173-183
  • 48
    • 84992844799 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 16–17.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 16-17
  • 49
    • 84992914561 scopus 로고
    • Almora District, in December, B progs 41–42, file 414/1899, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI
    • Goudge, Report on the Assessment of the Shore Pargana, Almora District, in December 1899, B progs 41–42, file 414/1899, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI, p. 8.
    • (1899) Report on the Assessment of the Shore Pargana , pp. 8
    • Goudge1
  • 52
    • 84992867390 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 26A–27A.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 26A-27A
  • 54
    • 1542554555 scopus 로고
    • Common Property Resources and Rural Poor in Dry Regions of India
    • in Ramachandra Guha, ed., Delhi, reproduced from Economic and Political Weekly (henceforth EPW), 5 July 1986. Jodha has brought out the significance of common property resources for the rural economy, particularly for the dry land areas. He shows that common property resources augment income, provide employment and reduce inequality caused by private property. Commons are now at the centre of the discourse on development
    • N.S. Jodha, ‘Common Property Resources and Rural Poor in Dry Regions of India’, in Ramachandra Guha, ed., Social Ecology, Delhi, 1994, reproduced from Economic and Political Weekly (henceforth EPW), 5 July 1986. Jodha has brought out the significance of common property resources for the rural economy, particularly for the dry land areas. He shows that common property resources augment income, provide employment and reduce inequality caused by private property. Commons are now at the centre of the discourse on development.
    • (1994) Social Ecology
    • Jodha, N.S.1
  • 55
    • 0014413249 scopus 로고
    • No. 162, opened the debate on the management of the commons in which human ecologists, the development experts and the global resource managers have actively participated. For a critical review of the literature on the commons
    • Garrett Hardin's The Tragedy of the Commons', Science, No. 162, 1968, pp. 1243–48, opened the debate on the management of the commons in which human ecologists, the development experts and the global resource managers have actively participated. For a critical review of the literature on the commons
    • (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons', Science , pp. 1243-1248
    • Hardin's, G.1
  • 56
    • 21744457907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • “Customs in Commons”: The Epistemic World of the Commons Scholars
    • see Michael Goldman, ‘“Customs in Commons”: The Epistemic World of the Commons Scholars’, Theory and Society, Vol. 26:1, 1997, pp. 1–37.
    • (1997) Theory and Society , vol.26 , Issue.1 , pp. 1-37
    • Goldman, M.1
  • 57
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, pp. 12–13.
    • Traill1
  • 58
    • 84992918629 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See various settlement reports by, in idem, Even in the late 1970s, only 16.8 per cent of the geographical area was under cultivation in the UP hills
    • See various settlement reports by Batten in idem, Official Reports. Even in the late 1970s, only 16.8 per cent of the geographical area was under cultivation in the UP hills.
    • Official Reports
    • Batten1
  • 60
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, pp. 1–2;
    • Traill1
  • 61
    • 84992857552 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1842, p. 124.
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 124
  • 62
    • 84992907902 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1842, p. 124.
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 124
  • 63
    • 84992835737 scopus 로고
    • See letter of Senior Assistant Commr, Garhwal to Commr, 31 August, Rev. Letters Issued November 1841 to August 1844, Pre-Mutiny Collectorate (Coll.), Pauri Garhwal Records, RA, Dehradun. However, expansion without permission was only allowed around the assessed area or generally within the village boundary. Cultivation of land at a distance from the village required special permission for nayabad grant
    • See letter of Senior Assistant Commr, Garhwal to Commr, Kumaun, 31 August 1842, in Vol. 9, Rev. Letters Issued November 1841 to August 1844, pp. 67–68, Pre-Mutiny Collectorate (Coll.), Pauri Garhwal Records, RA, Dehradun. However, expansion without permission was only allowed around the assessed area or generally within the village boundary. Cultivation of land at a distance from the village required special permission for nayabad grant.
    • (1842) Kumaun , vol.9 , pp. 67-68
  • 64
    • 84992835741 scopus 로고
    • Encouragement of cultivation of ‘waste’ was part of a broader colonial enterprise which was influenced by the discourse of modernism that developed in Europe during the period of enlightenment. In this discourse, ‘waste’ was given a different and broader meaning: it was ‘socially constructed’, and was given ‘ascriptive quality’. For this aspect of ‘waste’
    • See SRG, 1896, pp. 36–37. Encouragement of cultivation of ‘waste’ was part of a broader colonial enterprise which was influenced by the discourse of modernism that developed in Europe during the period of enlightenment. In this discourse, ‘waste’ was given a different and broader meaning: it was ‘socially constructed’, and was given ‘ascriptive quality’. For this aspect of ‘waste’
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 36-37
  • 65
    • 24544473903 scopus 로고
    • “Waste” and Permanent Settlement in Bengal
    • January, Special issue
    • see V.K. Gidwani, ‘“Waste” and Permanent Settlement in Bengal’, EPW, January, 1992, Special issue, pp. PE 39–46.
    • (1992) EPW , pp. PE 39-PE 46
    • Gidwani, V.K.1
  • 67
    • 84992796191 scopus 로고
    • Sudder Board of Revenue to Secy Govt. NWP, 22 January, Ist series
    • Secy, Sudder Board of Revenue to Secy Govt. NWP, 22 January 1846, in Selections, Ist series, Vol. I, pp. 56–57.
    • (1846) Selections , vol.1 , pp. 56-57
    • Secy1
  • 69
    • 84992834027 scopus 로고
    • See also
    • See also SRK, 1846, p. 271.
    • (1846) SRK , pp. 271
  • 70
    • 84992844774 scopus 로고
    • ‘Fee simple grants’ were those for which payment was made at lump sum and no revenue was paid. In case of wasteland grants lumpsum as well as revenue was paid. See
    • ‘Fee simple grants’ were those for which payment was made at lump sum and no revenue was paid. In case of wasteland grants lumpsum as well as revenue was paid. See SRG, 1896, pp. 38–39.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 38-39
  • 71
    • 84992834031 scopus 로고
    • SRK, 1873, Vol. I, p. 23.
    • (1873) SRK , vol.1 , pp. 23
  • 72
    • 84992796178 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, p. 37.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 37
  • 73
    • 84992836284 scopus 로고
    • The settlement was conducted by Beckett but he left for England due to ill health. Thus, a large part of the Report was written by Ramsay
    • SRK, 1873, Vol. I, pp. 22–27. The settlement was conducted by Beckett but he left for England due to ill health. Thus, a large part of the Report was written by Ramsay.
    • (1873) SRK , vol.1 , pp. 22-27
  • 74
    • 84992836285 scopus 로고
    • The Senior Assistant Commissioner, Garhwal, suggested that there should be explicit boundaries of ‘waste land’ although it would abridge rights of the people in forests
    • SRG, 1842, p. 125. The Senior Assistant Commissioner, Garhwal, suggested that there should be explicit boundaries of ‘waste land’ although it would abridge rights of the people in forests.
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 125
  • 75
    • 84992785977 scopus 로고
    • See his letter to Commr, 31 August, in Revenue Letters Issued, 1841–44, Pre-Mutiny Records, Coll. Pauri Garhwal, RA, Dehradun
    • See his letter to Commr, Kumaun, 31 August 1842, in Revenue Letters Issued, 1841–44, Vol. IX, Pre-Mutiny Records, Coll. Pauri Garhwal, RA, Dehradun.
    • (1842) Kumaun , vol.9
  • 76
    • 84992831386 scopus 로고
    • For the purchase of the common lands by the European settlers in Garhwal district, see File no. 3, Deptt. IV-a basta, 1891–95, ERR Collectorate, Pauri Garhwal. See also, and Appendix 10 (for list of ‘fee simple grants’ and Appendix 11 (for suitable sites for plantations). It mentions 13,742 bisi (13,827 acres) as ‘fee simple grants’ in Kumaun (p. 23). In Dehradun there were twenty-three tea estates in 1885, of which eighteen belonged to Europeans
    • For the purchase of the common lands by the European settlers in Garhwal district, see File no. 3, Deptt. IV-a basta, 1891–95, ERR Collectorate, Pauri Garhwal. See also SRK, 1873, Vol. I, pp. 22–23 and Appendix 10 (for list of ‘fee simple grants’ and Appendix 11 (for suitable sites for plantations). It mentions 13,742 bisi (13,827 acres) as ‘fee simple grants’ in Kumaun (p. 23). In Dehradun there were twenty-three tea estates in 1885, of which eighteen belonged to Europeans.
    • (1873) SRK , vol.1 , pp. 22-23
  • 77
    • 80054187660 scopus 로고
    • See, Other settlement reports also give similar lists
    • See SR, Dehradun, 1886, p. 43. Other settlement reports also give similar lists.
    • (1886) SR, Dehradun , pp. 43
  • 78
    • 80054187660 scopus 로고
    • SR, Dehradun, 1886, p. 43.
    • (1886) SR, Dehradun , pp. 43
  • 79
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    • Report on Tea Plantations, 1862–63
    • See, Superintendent (henceforth Spdt), Botanical Garden, NWP, in, Ist series, especially p. 437
    • See ‘Report on Tea Plantations, 1862–63’, by W. Jameson, Superintendent (henceforth Spdt), Botanical Garden, NWP, in Selections, Ist series, Vol. V, pp. 430–43, especially p. 437.
    • Selections , vol.5 , pp. 430-443
    • Jameson, W.1
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    • See also, Govt NWP, 12 May
    • See also Jameson to Secy Govt NWP, 12 May 1862, in Selections, pp. 422–29.
    • (1862) Selections , pp. 422-429
    • Jameson1    Secy2
  • 81
    • 84992800181 scopus 로고
    • Report on the Tea Plantation of Dehradun, Kumaun and Garhwal
    • 6 September
    • ‘Report on the Tea Plantation of Dehradun, Kumaun and Garhwal’ by R. Fortune, 6 September 1885, in Selections, pp. 401–21.
    • (1885) Selections , pp. 401-421
    • Fortune, R.1
  • 82
    • 84992825336 scopus 로고
    • Report on the Working of the Government Tea Plantations in Kumaun during 1867–68
    • Govt NWP, 12 March, IInd series
    • Jameson to Secy Govt NWP, 12 March 1868, ‘Report on the Working of the Government Tea Plantations in Kumaun during 1867–68’, in Selections, IInd series, Vol. I, pp. 1–8.
    • (1868) Selections , vol.1 , pp. 1-8
    • Jameson1    Secy2
  • 83
    • 84992800180 scopus 로고
    • Allahabad, (henceforth BGG), J.E. Goudge in his settlement report also observed decline in tea trade
    • Walton, Gazetteer of British Garhwal, Allahabad, 1910 (henceforth BGG), p. 39. J.E. Goudge in his settlement report also observed decline in tea trade.
    • (1910) Gazetteer of British Garhwal , pp. 39
    • Walton1
  • 84
    • 84992800202 scopus 로고
    • of Almora and Naini Tal
    • See SR of Almora and Naini Tal, 1903, p. 9.
    • (1903) SR , pp. 9
  • 85
    • 80054187660 scopus 로고
    • SR, Dehradun, 1886, pp. 43–44.
    • (1886) SR, Dehradun , pp. 43-44
  • 86
    • 84992900276 scopus 로고
    • SRK, 1873, p. 25.
    • (1873) SRK , pp. 25
  • 87
    • 84992845201 scopus 로고
    • For a detailed discussion on the issue see November 1895, progs 1 to 5 in file 11/1894–95, Box 60, COR, RA, Naini Tal. Though the file specifically deals with potato cultivation in Naini Tal, it discusses the right to expansion of cultivation in details. It concludes that unrestricted expansion could not be allowed particularly at the expense of trees. It specifically mentioned that the Forest Act of 1878 had empowered the government to regulate or prohibit all cultivation on common land and this represent a break from the past (see p. 8.). See also Box 10, file 7/1896–97, COR, RA, Naini Tal
    • SRG, 1896, p. 37. For a detailed discussion on the issue see November 1895, progs 1 to 5 in file 11/1894–95, Box 60, COR, RA, Naini Tal. Though the file specifically deals with potato cultivation in Naini Tal, it discusses the right to expansion of cultivation in details. It concludes that unrestricted expansion could not be allowed particularly at the expense of trees. It specifically mentioned that the Forest Act of 1878 had empowered the government to regulate or prohibit all cultivation on common land and this represent a break from the past (see p. 8.). See also Box 10, file 7/1896–97, COR, RA, Naini Tal.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 37
  • 88
    • 84992900214 scopus 로고
    • Draft Rules for the Protected Forests of Kumaun
    • See, May, A progs 5–8, Rev. Agr. (Forest), NAI
    • See ‘Draft Rules for the Protected Forests of Kumaun’, May 1894, A progs 5–8, Rev. Agr. (Forest), NAI;
    • (1894)
  • 89
    • 84992778729 scopus 로고
    • Progress Report of the DPF
    • June, prog 27, FD file 1/1897–98, Box 63, COR, RA, Naini Tal; file 58/1900–1901, Box 140, Naini Tal Col! Records, RA, Naini Tal., grants, for which there were numerous applications every year, could be made only on land which had no trees. See file 7/1896–97, Box 60, COR, RA, Naini Tal. Sometimes it was emphatically stressed that no cultivation was to be allowed on ‘waste’ and pasture lands: see letter of Conservator to Officer in Charge, Kumaun Forest Division, 4 October 1907, in file 20/1896–97, Box 122, Naini Tal Coll. Records, RA, Naini Tal. On increasing population and restrictions on expansion of arable land, see Letter of Senior Assistant Commr, Kumaun to Commr, Kumaun, 7 September 1889, file 97/1889–90, Box 56, COR, RA, Naini Tal
    • ‘Progress Report of the DPF’, June 1898, prog 27, FD file 1/1897–98, Box 63, COR, RA, Naini Tal; file 58/1900–1901, Box 140, Naini Tal Col! Records, RA, Naini Tal. Nayabad grants, for which there were numerous applications every year, could be made only on land which had no trees. See file 7/1896–97, Box 60, COR, RA, Naini Tal. Sometimes it was emphatically stressed that no cultivation was to be allowed on ‘waste’ and pasture lands: see letter of Conservator to Officer in Charge, Kumaun Forest Division, 4 October 1907, in file 20/1896–97, Box 122, Naini Tal Coll. Records, RA, Naini Tal. On increasing population and restrictions on expansion of arable land, see Letter of Senior Assistant Commr, Kumaun to Commr, Kumaun, 7 September 1889, file 97/1889–90, Box 56, COR, RA, Naini Tal.
    • (1898) Nayabad
  • 90
    • 84992800201 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, p. 37.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 37
  • 91
    • 0004262073 scopus 로고
    • rpt Delhi, 1988, In many instances even cultivated land, summer residences, water sources, etc., were included within the newly demarcated reserved forests. For complaints against such inclusions see the following files in the RA, Naini Tal. Collectorate Naini Tal Records: file 58/1911–13, Box 154; file 1/1880–93, Box 1; file 95/1909–11, Box 155. And COR, Records: file 3/1902–03, Box 58; file 1/1901–02, Box 68. See also file 118 Deptt. IVA, 1863–81, Box 21, Post-Mutiny Records, Coll., Dehradun, RA, Dehradun. When cultivated land was included in the reserves, people applied for its exclusion. However, it was only possible when the FD disforested the land. There were a large number of applications for disforestation. Disforestation was largely ruled out by the FD in the areas where any company was engaged in resin extraction. Although there are numerous files with applications for disforestation, see particularly the following FD files in UPSA Lucknow: file 25/1940, Box 514; file 26/1940, Box 515. Goudge, the Settlement Officer, found in the Naini Tal district hill pattis that one-third of the total number of villages suffered because of inclusion of cultivated land in the DPF. During the settlement, he received 197 applications from different villages complaining of inclusion of cultivated land in the DPF. He estimated that from every village, on an average four bisi of land and in total 788 bisi (782 acres) of land was included in the DPF
    • S.D. Pant, The Social Economy of the Himalayans, 1935, rpt Delhi, 1988, p. 86. In many instances even cultivated land, summer residences, water sources, etc., were included within the newly demarcated reserved forests. For complaints against such inclusions see the following files in the RA, Naini Tal. Collectorate Naini Tal Records: file 58/1911–13, Box 154; file 1/1880–93, Box 1; file 95/1909–11, Box 155. And COR, Records: file 3/1902–03, Box 58; file 1/1901–02, Box 68. See also file 118 Deptt. IVA, 1863–81, Box 21, Post-Mutiny Records, Coll., Dehradun, RA, Dehradun. When cultivated land was included in the reserves, people applied for its exclusion. However, it was only possible when the FD disforested the land. There were a large number of applications for disforestation. Disforestation was largely ruled out by the FD in the areas where any company was engaged in resin extraction. Although there are numerous files with applications for disforestation, see particularly the following FD files in UPSA Lucknow: file 25/1940, Box 514; file 26/1940, Box 515. Goudge, the Settlement Officer, found in the Naini Tal district hill pattis that one-third of the total number of villages suffered because of inclusion of cultivated land in the DPF. During the settlement, he received 197 applications from different villages complaining of inclusion of cultivated land in the DPF. He estimated that from every village, on an average four bisi of land and in total 788 bisi (782 acres) of land was included in the DPF.
    • (1935) The Social Economy of the Himalayans , pp. 86
    • Pant, S.D.1
  • 92
    • 84992844784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Assessment of the Naini Tal District Hill Pattis
    • file 1/1900–01, Box 69, COR, RA, Naini Tal
    • See Goudge, ‘Assessment of the Naini Tal District Hill Pattis’, file 1/1900–01, Box 69, COR, RA, Naini Tal.
    • Goudge1
  • 93
    • 84992796238 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See order of Wyndham on Miscellaneous Revenue Appeal No. 33 of 1917–18, Deba Nand and others versus Mukand Ram and others, 25 September 1918, 214. Thus, when the hissedars (proprietors) of the Agara village got nayabad grants on the pasture land of their khaikars' (permanent tenant) village Dang, the latter opposed it on the ground that this was an encroachment in their pasture. But the court dismissed their appeal and upheld the grant to the hissedars of Agara village
    • See order of Wyndham on Miscellaneous Revenue Appeal No. 33 of 1917–18, Deba Nand and others versus Mukand Ram and others, 25 September 1918, Gairola, Selected Revenue Decisions, pp. 32–33, 214. Thus, when the hissedars (proprietors) of the Agara village got nayabad grants on the pasture land of their khaikars' (permanent tenant) village Dang, the latter opposed it on the ground that this was an encroachment in their pasture. But the court dismissed their appeal and upheld the grant to the hissedars of Agara village.
    • Selected Revenue Decisions , pp. 32-33
    • Gairola1
  • 94
    • 84992786021 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and others versus Gabber Singh and others in Mauza No. 252, No. 64, Revenue Record Room, Coll., Pauri Garhwal
    • See Jeet Singh and others versus Gabber Singh and others in Mauza No. 252, Basta No. 64, Revenue Record Room, Coll., Pauri Garhwal.
    • Basta
    • Singh, J.1
  • 95
    • 84992796238 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See order of L. Owen on Miscellaneous Revenue Appeal No. 81 of 1933–34, Fakir Singh and others versus Ganga Datt and others, dated 8 March 1934, 214. There were many disputes on village boundaries
    • See order of L. Owen on Miscellaneous Revenue Appeal No. 81 of 1933–34, Fakir Singh and others versus Ganga Datt and others, dated 8 March 1934, Gairola, Selected Revenue Decisions, pp. 55–56, 214. There were many disputes on village boundaries.
    • Selected Revenue Decisions , pp. 55-56
    • Gairola1
  • 97
    • 84992786011 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Also, a large number of files relating to such cases are available in the Mauzabar, Revenue Record Room, Coll.
    • Also, a large number of files relating to such cases are available in the Mauzabar Bastas, Revenue Record Room, Coll., Pauri Garhwal.
    • Bastas
    • Garhwal, P.1
  • 98
    • 84992914556 scopus 로고
    • For instance, see the case Miscellaneous, No. 64/87, dated 20 October, versus Raij Ram, Mauza Kandla Idwalsyun
    • For instance, see the case Miscellaneous Nayabad No. 64/87, dated 20 October 1927, Harikrishan Doval versus Raij Ram, Mauza Kandla Idwalsyun.
    • (1927) Nayabad
    • Doval, H.1
  • 99
    • 84992786064 scopus 로고
    • Suggestions with Regard to the Next Settlement of Almora
    • FD file 366(A), Box 336, UPSA, Lucknow
    • Clay, ‘Suggestions with Regard to the Next Settlement of Almora’, FD file 366(A)/1924, Box 336, UPSA, Lucknow.
    • (1924)
    • Clay1
  • 100
    • 84992865359 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1842, p. 123.
    • (1842) SRG , pp. 123
  • 101
    • 0021574667 scopus 로고
    • Migration and Agrarian Change in Garhwal District, Uttar Pradesh
    • in Tim Bayliss-Smith and Sudhir Wanmali, eds, Cambridge
    • William Whittaker, ‘Migration and Agrarian Change in Garhwal District, Uttar Pradesh’, in Tim Bayliss-Smith and Sudhir Wanmali, eds, Understanding Green Revolution: Agrarian Change and Development Planning in South Asia, Cambridge, 1984, pp. 109–35.
    • (1984) Understanding Green Revolution: Agrarian Change and Development Planning in South Asia , pp. 109-135
    • Whittaker, W.1
  • 102
    • 85041152195 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge, Grove gives examples of the writing of Theophrastus and Pliny in classical Greece. The impact of deforestation, according to Grove, was most explicit in the tropical island colonies such as St. Helena, Mauritus, etc., due to their small size. In India, Grove argues, surgeons of the EIC were the first to link deforestation with scarcity, food crisis and famine. Deforestation was seen by surgeons as a threat to the social fabric. Grove underlines the role of William Roxburgh, Nathniel Wallich, Alexender Gibson, etc.
    • Richard H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origin of Environmentalism, 1600–1860, Cambridge, 1995. Grove gives examples of the writing of Theophrastus and Pliny in classical Greece. The impact of deforestation, according to Grove, was most explicit in the tropical island colonies such as St. Helena, Mauritus, etc., due to their small size. In India, Grove argues, surgeons of the EIC were the first to link deforestation with scarcity, food crisis and famine. Deforestation was seen by surgeons as a threat to the social fabric. Grove underlines the role of William Roxburgh, Nathniel Wallich, Alexender Gibson, etc.
    • (1995) Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origin of Environmentalism, 1600–1860
    • Grove, R.H.1
  • 103
    • 80054131517 scopus 로고
    • Indian Famines and Indian Forests
    • (henceforth IF), reproduced from the Nineteenth Century and After.
    • See J. Nisbet, ‘Indian Famines and Indian Forests’, Indian Forester (henceforth IF), Vol. 34: 11, 1908, pp. 633–52, reproduced from the Nineteenth Century and After.
    • (1908) Indian Forester , vol.34 , Issue.11 , pp. 633-652
    • Nisbet, J.1
  • 106
    • 80054128445 scopus 로고
    • The Influence of Forests on Cultivation in the Hills
    • Ram Swarup, ‘The Influence of Forests on Cultivation in the Hills’, IF, Vol. 28: 7, 1902, pp. 253–55.
    • (1902) IF , vol.28 , Issue.7 , pp. 253-255
    • Swarup, R.1
  • 109
    • 0000512224 scopus 로고
    • A Study for Improving the Productivity of Livestock in the Hills of Uttar Pradesh
    • in J.S. Singh, ed., Naini Tal
    • M.G. Jackson, ‘A Study for Improving the Productivity of Livestock in the Hills of Uttar Pradesh’, in J.S. Singh, ed., Environmental Regeneration in Himalaya: Concept and Strategies, Naini Tal, 1985, pp. 130–54.
    • (1985) Environmental Regeneration in Himalaya: Concept and Strategies , pp. 130-154
    • Jackson, M.G.1
  • 110
    • 80054187678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Statistical Sketch
    • Traill, ‘Statistical Sketch’, p. 36.
    • Traill1
  • 112
    • 84992906471 scopus 로고
    • BGG, 1910, p. 26;
    • (1910) BGG , pp. 26
  • 114
    • 84992914473 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 21–22.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 21-22
  • 116
    • 84992914483 scopus 로고
    • 90
    • SRG, 1896, p. 24, 90.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 24
  • 117
    • 84992788715 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Figures are based on the, U.P. For details see Dangwal, Colonial Forestry and Agrarian Transformation, Chap. 3
    • Figures are based on the Annual Progress Report of the Forest Department, U.P. For details see Dangwal, Colonial Forestry and Agrarian Transformation, Chap. 3.
    • Annual Progress Report of the Forest Department
  • 118
    • 84868372614 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For similar arguments on linkages between deforestation and impoverishment of the ecosystem, see
    • For similar arguments on linkages between deforestation and impoverishment of the ecosystem, see Rao and Saxena, Sustainable Development, p. 46;
    • Sustainable Development , pp. 46
    • Rao1    Saxena2
  • 119
    • 84992788714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Migration and Agrarian Change
    • Whittaker, ‘Migration and Agrarian Change’;
    • Whittaker1
  • 121
    • 0004472440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ecological Change in the North India: Deforestation and Agrarian Distress in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, 1800–1850
    • in R. Grove, V. Damodaran and S. Sangwan, eds, New Delhi, Mann has discussed the impact of deforestation in details
    • Michael Mann, ‘Ecological Change in the North India: Deforestation and Agrarian Distress in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, 1800–1850’, in R. Grove, V. Damodaran and S. Sangwan, eds, Nature and the Orient: Essays on Environment History of South and Southeast Asia, New Delhi, 1998, pp. 396–420. Mann has discussed the impact of deforestation in details.
    • (1998) Nature and the Orient: Essays on Environment History of South and Southeast Asia , pp. 396-420
    • Mann, M.1
  • 126
    • 84992921211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Changing Composition of Forests and Ecological Change in the UP Hills, 1860–1947
    • For details see, Chap. 4. An improved version of the chapter was presented as a paper entitled, at a CSE Seminar on Ecological History and Traditional Sciences, at India International Centre, New Delhi, 27–29 March
    • For details see Dangwal, Colonial Forestry and Agrarian Transformation, Chap. 4. An improved version of the chapter was presented as a paper entitled, ‘Changing Composition of Forests and Ecological Change in the UP Hills, 1860–1947’, at a CSE Seminar on Ecological History and Traditional Sciences, at India International Centre, New Delhi, 27–29 March 1997.
    • (1997) Colonial Forestry and Agrarian Transformation
    • Dangwal1
  • 128
    • 84992867429 scopus 로고
    • SRG, 1896, pp. 21–22.
    • (1896) SRG , pp. 21-22
  • 129
    • 0042906249 scopus 로고
    • “Turf” and Forest Management in Garhwal Hill Village
    • in L. Fortmann and J.W. Bruce, eds, London
    • Marcus Moench, ‘“Turf” and Forest Management in Garhwal Hill Village’, in L. Fortmann and J.W. Bruce, eds, Whose Trees? Proprietary Dimensions of Forestry, London, 1988, pp. 127–36.
    • (1988) Whose Trees? Proprietary Dimensions of Forestry , pp. 127-136
    • Moench, M.1
  • 130
    • 5844411903 scopus 로고
    • Agriculture Economy of Kumaun Hills: A Comment
    • October
    • J. Bandyopadhyay and Vandana S. Shiva, ‘Agriculture Economy of Kumaun Hills: A Comment’, EPW, 13 October 1979, pp. 1733–36.
    • (1979) EPW , vol.13 , pp. 1733-1736
    • Bandyopadhyay, J.1    Shiva, V.S.2
  • 131
    • 84992823388 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • personal communication, 20 June, at Dehradun. I am grateful to Dr. Gupta
    • R.K. Gupta, personal communication, 20 June 1997, at Dehradun. I am grateful to Dr. Gupta.
    • (1997)
    • Gupta, R.K.1
  • 133
    • 80054491176 scopus 로고
    • Alternation (Rotation) of Forest Crops
    • June
    • See B.O. Coventry, ‘Alternation (Rotation) of Forest Crops’, IF, Vol. 34, June 1908, pp. 327–39;
    • (1908) IF , vol.34 , pp. 327-339
    • Coventry, B.O.1
  • 134
    • 80054171736 scopus 로고
    • Forest Soils
    • March
    • E.A. Garland, ‘Forest Soils’, IF, Vol. 59, March 1933, pp. 171–75.
    • (1933) IF , vol.59 , pp. 171-175
    • Garland, E.A.1
  • 135
    • 84992823405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Report on the Assessment of Pargana Shor, Almora District, in December 1899, B progs 41–42, file 414/1899, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.)
    • Goudge, Report on the Assessment of Pargana Shor, Almora District, in December 1899, B progs 41–42, file 414/1899, Rev. Agr. (Land Rev.), NAI, p. 10.
    • NAI , pp. 10
    • Goudge1
  • 136
    • 0000950161 scopus 로고
    • Deterioration of Mountain Environments: Ecological Stress in the Highlands of Asia, Latin America and Africa takes a Mounting Social Toll
    • E.P. Eckholm, ‘Deterioration of Mountain Environments: Ecological Stress in the Highlands of Asia, Latin America and Africa takes a Mounting Social Toll’, Science, No. 189, 1975, pp. 764–49;
    • (1975) Science , Issue.189 , pp. 764-849
    • Eckholm, E.P.1
  • 137
    • 84992788714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Migration and Agrarian Change
    • Whittaker, ‘Migration and Agrarian Change’;
    • Whittaker1
  • 138
    • 0018617762 scopus 로고
    • Agricultural Economy of Kumaon Hills: Threat of Ecological Disaster
    • 23 June, reproduced in
    • Sri Madhava Ashish, ‘Agricultural Economy of Kumaon Hills: Threat of Ecological Disaster’, EPW, Vol. 14 (25), 23 June 1979, pp. 1058–64, reproduced in
    • (1979) EPW , vol.14 , Issue.25 , pp. 1058-1064
    • Ashish, S.M.1
  • 140
    • 84992865353 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Agriculture Economy of Kumaun Hills
    • Some scholars do not share the view that agriculture in the UP hills is unsustainable See
    • Some scholars do not share the view that agriculture in the UP hills is unsustainable See Bandyopadhyay and Shiva, ‘Agriculture Economy of Kumaun Hills’;
    • Bandyopadhyay1    Shiva2


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