The Military Revolution in Russia, 1550-1682

Journal of Military History

Volumn 68, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 9-46

  Paul, Michael C ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 61049108195     PISSN: 08993718     EISSN: 15437795     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jmh.2003.0401     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. A revision of this lecture appears as "The Military Revolution," in Michael Roberts, Essays in Swedish History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1966), 195-225.
2. Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 1.
3. Jeremy Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550-1800 (London: Macmillan, 1991), 2.
4. Black, A Military Revolution?, passim.
5. Richard Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971);
6. John Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985);
7. Carol Belkin Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe: Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995).
8. Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 603;
9. Daniel H. Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980), 153-63;
10. Marshall Poe, "The Military Revolution, Administrative Development, and Cultural Change in Early Modern Russia," Journal of Early Modern History 2, no. 3 (1998): 248.
11. Tysiachnaia Kniga (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1950). The book is so called because it discusses Ivan the Terrible's "Chosen Thousand" brought to serve in the capital.
12. Novgorodskiia Pistsovyia Knigi, 6 vols. (St. Petersburg: Senatskaia Tipografiia, 1910).
13. Polnoe Sobranie Russkikh Letopisci, 40 volumes to date (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Leningrad: Arkheographicheskaia kommissiia, Vostochnaia Literatura, Nauka, 1846-1995) [hereafter PSRL].
14. Grigorii Karpovich Kotoshikhin, On Russia in the Reign of Alexis Mikhailovich: An Annotated Translation, ed. and trans. Benjamin Phillip Uroff (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1992), photocopy of dissertation (Columbia, 1970).
15. Translation of the fourth edition of O Rossii v tsarstvovanii Alekseia Mikhailovicha (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo Imp. Arkheograficheskoi Kommissii, 1906).
16. Kotoshikhin appears to have written the account based on questions posed by Swedish officials. The original manuscript is held by the University of Uppsala, Sweden. On Kotoshikhin's life and the circumstances surrounding his defection and writing of this work, see the introduction to Kotoshikhin, On Russia in the Reign of Alexis Mikhailovich, 4;
17. A. I. Markevich, Grigorii Karpovich Kotoshikhin i ego sochinenie o Moskovskom gosudarstve v polovine XVII veka (Odessa: Tip. Shtaba Okruga, 1895).
18. Giles Fletcher, Of the Russe Commonwealth, ed. John V. A. Fine, Jr., and Richard Pipes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966; facsimile of 1591 edition).
19. Sigismund von Herberstein, Description of Moscow and Muscovy, 1557, ed. Bertold Picard, trans. from the German by J. B. C. Grundy (London: Dent, 1969). The original Latin title was Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii.
20. Heinrich von Staden, The Land and Government of Muscovy: A Sixteenth Century Account, ed. and trans. Thomas Esper (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1967).
21. This is an English version of the Russian G. Staden, O Moskve Ivana Groznovo, Zapiski nemetsa-oprichnika [On the Moscow of Ivan the Terrible: notes of a German Oprichnik] (Moscow: Izdaniie M. i. S. Sabashnikovykh45, 1925).
22. Anthony Jenkinson, Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia, ed. E. Delmar Morgan and C. H. Coote, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1886).
23. Jerome Horsey, "The Travels of Sir Jerome Horsey, Knight," in Russia at the Close of the Sixteenth Century, ed. Edward A. Bond (London: Hakluyt Society, 1856).
24. Adam Olearius, The Travels of Olearius in Seventeenth Century Russia, ed. and trans. Samuel H. Baron (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1967).
25. George Tolstoy, ed., The First Forty Years of Intercourse Between England and Russia, 1553-1593 (New York: Burt Franklin, 1964).
26. Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 25;
27. Gustave Alef, "Muscovite Military Reform in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century," Forschungen zur osteuropaischen Geschichte 18 (1973): 73-108
28. reprinted in Rulers and Nobles in Fifteenth Century Muscovy (London: Variorum Reprints, 1983), 88.
29. Poe, "The Military Revolution, Administrative Development, and Cultural Change in Early Modern Russia," 253.
30. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 35.
31. For the various prikazy, see Olearius, The Travels of Olearius in Seventeenth Century Russia, 221-26. On the military prikazy, see 222, 223, 225.
32. PSRL 13:200;
33. Nancy Shields Kollmann also makes this point, in Kinship and Politics: The Making of the Muscovite Political System, 1345-1547 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1987), 41.
34. Alef, "Muscovite Military Reform in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century," 84-85. Appanage principalities remained in existence in Muscovy into the sixteenth century. They were often given to brothers or cousins of the Grand Prince, or to younger sons. However, they no longer had any real independent power base, and the Grand Prince or Tsar could reassign an Appanage prince to other lands, as Ivan the Terrible did to his cousin Vladimir Staritskii. Vladimir was arrested along with his mother in 1563 and was later executed, while his mother was forced to enter a convent.
35. See A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich, Rossiia vremeni Ivana Groznogo [Russia in the time of Ivan the Terrible] (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1982), 100;
36. Sergei Platonov, Ivan the Terrible, ed. and trans. Joseph L. Wieczinski (Gulf Breeze, Fla.: Academic International Press, 1974), 113.
37. See Anne Kleimola, "Patterns of Duma Recruitment, 1547-1564," Forschungen zur Osteuropaischen Geschichte 38 (1986): 205-20;
38. Kleimola, "Reliance on the Tried and True: Ivan IV and Appointments to the Boyar Duma, 1565-1584," Russian History 46 (1992): 47-64. Kleimola and others point out that there was no institutionalized "Boyar Council" under the House of Riurik (tenth century to 1598), but that a small number of boyars advised the Grand Prince or Tsar on a personal basis, often meeting with him individually, not as a council. Grigorii Kotoshikhin, writing in Sweden on the reign of Aleksei Mikhailovich in 1667, described the Boyar Duma as an institutionalized body.
39. Kollmann, Kinship and Politics, ch. 1, "The Formative Fourteenth Century."
40. For a contemporary discussion of the composition of the upper, middle, and lower service classes and pay scales in the Russian army, see Fletcher, Of the Russe Commonwealth, 54-57.
41. for illustrations of pomeshchiki, see E. A. Razin, Istoriia voennogo iskusstva, vol. 2, Voennoe Iskusstvo feodal'nogo perioda voiny [History of military art, vol. 2, Military art of the feudal war period] (Moscow: Voennoe Izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Oborony SSSR [Military Publisher of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR], 1957), 329;
42. see also the illustrations by Herberstein in Sergei M. Soloviev, A History of Russia, vol. 12, Russian Society Under Ivan the Terrible (Gulf Breeze, Fla.: Academic International Press, 1996), 26;
43. Herberstein, Description of Moscow, 75.
44. Soloviev, A History of Russia, 12:vii.
45. The Russian pomest'e system is in fact quite similar to the feudal system set up in England by William the Conqueror some five hundred years earlier. There a landowner had to equip one mounted knight for every five hides of land held. The Cartae Baronorum of 1166 gives an overview of this system under Henry II. Charles Oman, The History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, vol. 1, A.D. 378-1278 (New York: Burt Franklin, 1969), 360-71.
46. Horsey, "The Travels of Sir Jerome Horsey," 181.
47. N. I. (Nikolai Ivanovich) Khlebnikov, O vliianii obshchestva na organizatsiiu gosudarstva v tsarskii period russkoi istorii [On the influence of society on the organization of the state in the tsarist period of Russian history] (St. Petersburg: Tip. A. M. Kotomina, 1869), 30-02;
48. N. A. [Nikolai Aleksandrovich] Rozhkov, Sel'skoe khoziastvo Moskovskoi Rusi v XVI veke [The agriculture of Muscovite Russia in the sixteenth century] (Moscow: Universitetskaia Tipografii, 1899), 438-41;
49. Jerome Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia: From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (New York: Atheneum Books, 1967, 1961), 179-80, 200-201.
50. Tysiachnaia kniga, 55, 57, 61, 82, 83, 103;
51. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia, 179-80.
52. Cf. Richard Hellie, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia, 1600-1725 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 470-73.
53. The pishchal', as it developed as an harquebus, was an early matchlock of 0.22 caliber weighing 8-10 kg., enough to require a stand for firing. It had a range of two hundred to three hundred meters. Thomas Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," Slavic Review 28 (June 1969): 192;
54. On the early pishchal' cannon, as well as the nariada, a late fourteenth-century cannon, see Razin, Istoriia voennogo iskusstva, 2:310-11. These weapons were metal tubes set and bracketed into a grooved, wheelless piece of wood.
55. Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," 193;
56. Chernov, "Obrazovanie streletskogo voiska [The formation of Strel'tsy troops]," Istoricheskie zapiski [Historical notes] 38 (1951): 282-84.
57. Chernov cites Marx, who, using several sources, claimed the strel'tsy were founded in 1545; sources would also seem to show the formation of the strel'tsy in the last years of Ivan's minority. Cf. PSRL 20:57, 297;
58. Sergei Soloviev, Istoriia Rossii s drevneishikh vremen [History of Russia from ancient times] (Moscow: Izd-vo sotsialno-ekonomicheskoi literatury, 1965), 2:57.
59. Hellie dated the strel'tsy from 1550 (Enserfment and Military Change, 161)
60. The Chronicle of the Beginning of the Reign of Ivan Vasil'evich noted that as Ivan IV advanced on Kazan', "the streltsy and cossacks advanced with him in front of the regiment" and that the hetmen of the cossacks and commanders of the streltsy accompanied the tsar. PSRL 29:95.
61. Kotoshikhin noted that "among the musketeers .... there are many rich trading men and artisans of various kinds." Kotoshikhin, On Russia in the Reign of Alexis Mikhailovich, 172. On their sons being raised to be strel'tsy, see 243. On their incomes, see 172-73.
62. Hamel, in Early Travels in Russia and Persia, 2:360-61, appendix 1.
63. The platforms were used for public reviews, but apparently also were used in combat. The guliai gorod is discussed in Razin, Istoriia voennogo iskusstva, 2:337;
64. Christopher Duffy, Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494-1660 (London and Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), 171-72;
65. Duffy, Siege Warfare, 172.
66. Roberts and Hellie defined the caracole differently. A caracole, in Roberts's usage, was when "a squadron of heavy cavalry . . . would ride to within thirty paces of the enemy . . . turn right, and simultaneously discharge their left-hand pistols. The maneuver was then repeated by wheeling about and firing the right-hand pistol." Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611-32 (London: Longman, Green, and Co., 1958), 2:179.
67. What Hellie called a caracole, Roberts referred to as the countermarch or volley. See Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 2:174;
68. Parker, The Military Revolution, 18-19.
69. Sometimes the number was increased to one soldier for every twenty households. Keep noted that universal conscription did not begin in Russia until 1874. Soldiers of the Tsar, 376.
70. For documents on the recruitment of foreign mercenaries for service in Russia, see Polnoe sobranie zakonov russkoi imperii [The complete collection of laws of the Russian empire] (St. Petersburg: Gos. Tipografii, 1885-1916), Vol. 3, Nos. 81-88.
71. Hellie, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia, 462-66, especially 466.
72. Geoffrey Parker, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 29.
73. PSRL 22:501; 25:368.
74. PSRL 15:25;
75. Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," 188.
76. PSRL 8:122;
77. Alef, "Muscovite Military Reforms in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century," 81.
78. Hellie called artillery at this time, "primarily still a noise machine." Richard Hellie, "Warfare, Changing Military Technology, and the Evolution of Muscovite Society," in John Lynn, The Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445-1871 (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 75.
79. Early Travels in Russia and Persia, 2:360, appendix 1.
80. Staden, The Land and Government of Muscovy, 43-44.
81. Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," 207.
82. For a discussion of the medieval and early modern wooden and stone fortresses, see A. V. Nikitin, Materialy i issledovaniia po arkhelogiia SSSR [Material and research on the archeology of the USSR], no. 44 (Moscow: ANSSSR, 1955);
83. A. Rappaport, Voennoe zodchestvo zapadnogo russkikh zemel' X-XIV v.v. [Military architecture of the western Russian lands from the 10th to the 14th centuries] (Leningrad: ANSSSR, 1967), especially 152, 210-11;
84. A. Rappaport, Ocherkipo istorii russkogo voennogo zodchestvo [Essays on the history of Russian military architecture] (Moscow and Leningrad: ANSSSR, 1956), 136-37;
85. A. Rappaport, Ocherki po istorii russkogo zodchestvo severno-vostochnoi i severno-zapadnoi Rusi X-XV v.v. [Essays on the history of Russian architecture of northeastern and northwestern Russia from the 10th to the 15th centuries] (Leningrad: ANSSSR, 1961).
86. Benesch counted only fourteen stone-and-brick fortresses, while Lappo-Danilevskii counted nineteen. W. Benesch, "The Use of Wood as a Building Material in PreModern Russia: Its Extent and Potential Cultural Implications," Cahiers d'histoire mondiale 8, 1 (1964): 160-67;
87. A. S. Lappo-Danilevskii, Organizatsiia priamogo oblozheniia v Moskovskom gosudarstve so vremen smuty do epokhi preobrazovaniia (The organization of direct taxation in the Muscovite state from the time of troubles to the era of reforms) (St. Petersburg: I. N. Skorokhoda, 1890).
88. PSRL 14:37.
89. A map of Moscow published by Adam Olearius in the mid-seventeenth century showed bastions along the southern wall of the city (left side of map). See Anthony Cross, Russia Through Western Eyes, 1517-1825 (London: Elek Books, 1971), 92-93;
90. Nikitin, Materialy i issledovaniia po arkhelogiia SSSR, no. 44, pp. 164-70.
91. This importation of weapons and experts caused consternation among Western Europeans, especially in the Hanseatic cities, Poland, and Livonia. See Esper, "A Sixteenth Century Anti-Russian Arms Embargo," Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas [Yearbook for East European history] 15 (June 1967): 180-96;
92. George Tolstoy, England and Russia, 29-33.
93. Esper, "A Sixteenth Century Anti-Russian Arms Embargo," 182-83.
94. Tolstoy, England and Russia, 38-40.
95. The Kremlin is said to closely resemble the Sforza Castle in Milan, which is not surprising since both Solario and de Milano came from that city. Duffy, Siege Warfare, 170. Novgorod's Kremlin (or Detinets) was rebuilt in 1484-90. The fortifications at Pskov, Ladoga, Ostrov, Kopor'e, and lam were all rebuilt by the end of the fifteenth century along similar lines.
96. Dianne I. Smith, "Muscovite Logistics 1462-1598," Slavonic and East European Review 71 (January 1993): 37;
97. Jacques Margaret, The Russian Empire and Grand Duchy of Muscovy: A 17th Century French Account, ed. and trans. Chester S. L. Dunning (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983).
98. The regiments are listed in Staden, The Land and Government of Muscovy, 7-8;
99. Roberts, "The Military Revolution," 212.
100. Richard Hellie has pointed out that Russia used linear tactics at the Battle of Dobrinichie in 1605, "only five years after they had been 'invented' by Maurice of Orange to maximize fire power." He also noted that the pishchal'niki used linear tactics when employing the gulai gorod. This being said, the Military Revolution in Russia was not completed until the early eighteenth century, later than the case in the west of Europe, assuming a Military Revolution in the mid-sixteenth century. Hellie, "Warfare, Changing Military Technology, and the Evolution of Muscovite Society," 84;
101. Though Staden noted defensive fortifications along the Oka River: "For more than fifty miles along this Oka River the banks were fortified so: two four-foot palisades were set up with a two-foot space between them. The earth dug from behind the rear palisade was thrown between the two and the space was thus filled. The palisades were constructed by the princes and the boyars according to the extent of their estates. The harquebusiers therefore could lie behind the two palisades or entrenchments and shoot the Tatars as they swam across the river." Staden, The Land and Government of Muscovy, 53. Such defenses were similar to the chertva lines in intent and, to some extent, in construction.
102. Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," 192.
103. Several scholars have noted similar crises (epidemics, famines, etc.) elsewhere in Europe during the seventeenth century. See Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M. Smith, eds., The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978).
104. Peter Clark limited the crisis to the late sixteenth century: Peter Clark, The European Crisis of the 1590s (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985).
105. At some point between 1594 and 1603, starvation caused by famine hit England, Scotland, France, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Livonia, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia. Chester Dunning, "Does Jack Goldstone's Model of Early Modern State Crises Apply to Russia?" Comparative Studies in Society and History 39 (July 1997): 582. See also 574-80 on the General Crisis. It is not clear what impact the General Crisis had in the West, or would have had on similar changes in Russia, although Russia's crises, including the interregnum between the Riurikid and Romanov Dynasties, were arguable more severe and may thus have put off the Military Revolution there.
106. Marshall Poe, "The Consequences of the Military Revolution in
107. Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia, passim.
108. Egor Frantsevich Kankrin, Über die Militärökonomie im Frieden und Krieg, und ihr Wechselverhältnis zu den Operationen [On the military economy in war and peace and its changing conditions in operations] (St. Petersburg: n.p., 1823)
109. cited in G. Perjés, "Army Provisioning, Logistics, and Strategy in the Second Half of the 17th Century," Acta Historica Academiae Hungaricae [Historie acts of the Hungarian academy] 16 (1970): 4-5. While most of Kankrin's figures are from 1700, and Austria's and the Rhineland's figures are from 1754 and 1768 respectively, they serve as a rough guide to the difference in population density between Russia and Western Europe around this time.
110. Perjés, "Army Provisioning, Logistics, and Strategy," 4.
111. By 1553, some 43 percent of the lands of the Bogoslovskii Monastery in the Riazan province had been deserted due to the epidemics. Twenty years later, 32 percent of the Bogoslovskii land remained abandoned. The Simonov Monastery in the Kostroma District suffered 40 percent losses by 1561-62, and by 1573, 83 percent of the households in Murom had been abandoned. In Kostroma in 1578, only twelve taxpaying districts remained. E. I. [Evgeniia Ivanovna] Kolycheva, Agrarnyi stroi Rossii XVI veka [The agrarian system in Russia in the 16th century] (Moscow: Nauka, 1987), 172, 192;
112. Daniel Kaiser and Gary Marker, Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings, 860-1860s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 166-67.
113. Novgorodskie Pistsovie knigi, 6:581;
114. Istorichcskii arkhiv (Moscow: ANSSSR, 1951), 7:221;
115. Kolycheva, Agrarnii stroi Rossii, 172;
116. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting Russian History, 166.
117. Staden, O Moskve Ivana Groznovo, Zapiski nemetsa-oprichnik, 96, 106;
118. Staden, The Land and Government of Muscovy, 29, 46, 122, especially 29;
119. Zimin and Khoroshkevich, Rossiia vremeni Ivana Groznogo, 104-33;
120. Platonov, Ivan the Terrible, 96-114;
121. Ruslan Skrynikov, Oprichnina Terror (Leningrad: ANSSR, 1969);
122. Ruslan Skrynikov, Rossiia posle oprichniny [Russia after the Oprichnina] (Leningrad: ANSSR, 1975);
123. Aleksandr Zimin, Oprichnina Ivan Groznogo [The Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible] (Moscow: Nauka, 1964);
124. Kolycheva, Agrarniii stroi Rossii;
125. By 1577, only 9.6 percent of arable land was in use in the Bezhetskii Verkh district, according to some surveys, and the average abandonment of service estates had reached 98.2 percent in the Moscow District. Kolycheva, Agrarnii stroi Rosii, 182;
126. Horsey claimed the Crimean Khan (whom he calls the "Sithian Emperor") entered Russia with "200 thousand soldiers, all horsemen."
127. On the importation of bronze and tin, or of finished brass cannons, see Esper, "Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," 189.
128. On the payment of soldiers, see Hellie, Enserfment and Military Change, 36-37,171, 227-30, especially table 1, 36; table 4, 171; and table 5, 228.
129. I. G. Spasskii, "Denezhnoe khoziastvo russkogo gosudarstva v seredine XVII v. i reforma 1654-1663 gg.," Arkheograficheskii ezhegodnik sa 1959 god ("The monetary economy of the Russian state in the middle of the seventeenth century and the reforms of 1654-1663," Archaeographic Yearbook for 1959) (Moscow: Nauka, 1960), 103-56, especially 124-41;
130. Hellie, The Economic and Material Culture of Russia, 162-65.
131. Dunning, "Does Jack Goldstone's Model of Early Modern State Crises Apply to Russia?" 573.
132. Sergei Platonov, The Time of Troubles, trans. John Alexander (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1970);
133. The early period of the Romanov dynasty was not entirely stable and not without its pretenders, however. Timofei Ankidinov claimed to be either the son or grandson (at different times) of Vasilii Shuiskii, who had reigned briefly as tsar during the Troubles (r. 1606-10) before being forced to take monastic orders. Ankidinov was finally executed in Moscow in 1653, during the reign of Aleksei Mikhailovich. Paul Dukes, The Making of Russian Absolutism, 1613-1801 (New York and London: Longman, 1992), 25, 28.
134. Dukes, The Making of Russian Absolutism, 29.
135. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe, 19.
136. B. F. Porshnev, Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years War, 1630-1650, ed. Paul Dukes, trans. Brian Pearce (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 61-62;
137. Porshnev added that similar shipments to Sweden in the 1630s would have led to riots then had the government not curtailed shipments. Porshnev, Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years War, 30-62, especially 30, 61, and 62.
138. Stevens, Soldiers on the Steppe, table 1, 161.
139. Taras Hunczak, ed., Russian Imperialism From Ivan the Great to the Revolution (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1974), ix.