In the Russians' steppes: The introduction of Russian wheat on the Great Plains of the United States of America

Journal of Global History

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 203-225

  Moon, David ^a  

^a DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 60950703323     PISSN: 17400228     EISSN: 17400236     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1740022808002611     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. See Knowles A. Ryerson, 'History and significance of the foreign plant introductions work of the US Dept of Agriculture', Agricultural History (henceforth AH), 7, 1933, p. 121.
2. The explorer who preceded Carleton was Niels E, Hansen (Ryerson, 'Plant introductions', AH, 50, 1976, p. 253).
3. National Archives at College Park, MD (henceforth NACP), Record Group (henceforth RG) 54, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering [USDA], Entry 29, Letters sent by M. A. Carleton, 1897-8, vol. 1, Letter to D. G. Fairchild, 27 June 1898; fos. 124-6, Letter to A. F. Woode, 27 June 1898.
4. For a popular account of Carleton's life, see Paul De Kruif, Hunger fighters, New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace and Co, 1928, pp, 3-30.
5. Mark Alfred Carleton, The small grains, New York, NY: Macmillan, 1916, p. 166.
6. AX. Olmstead and P. W, Rhode, 'Biological innovation in American wheat production', in S,R, Schrepfer and P. Scranton (eds,), Industrializing organisms; introducing evolutionary history, London: Routledge, 2004, pp. 62-5
7. M. K. Bennett, 'World wheat crops, 1885-1932', Wheat Studies, 9, 7, 1933, pp. 239-74
8. M. K. Bennett and H. C. Farnsworth, 'World wheat acreage, yields, and climates'. Wheat Studies, 13, 6, 1937, pp. 265-308.
9. See Curtis Marbut, Soils: their genesis and classification, n. p. : Soil Science Society of America, 1951, pp. 17-18, 25, 128-30
10. Douglas Helms, 'Early leaders of the Soil Survey', in Douglas Helms, Anne B. W. Effland, and Patricia J, Durana (eds. ), Profiles in the history of the U. S. Soil Survey, Ames, IO; Iowa State Press, 2002, pp. 19-64.
11. Gifford Pinchot, Breaking new ground, Washington, DC: Island Press, 1998 (first edition 1947), pp. xi-xiii, 213-16
12. P. O. Rudolf and S. R. Gevorkiantz, 'Shelterbelt experience in other lands', in Possibilities of shelterbelt planting in the plains region, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office (henceforth GPO), 1935, pp. 59-76.
13. For example, Walter Prescott Webb, The Great Plains, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1981 (1st edition, Boston, MA: Ginn, 1931 ), p. 373
14. James C, Malin, Winter wheat in the golden belt of Kansas: a study in adaption to subhumid geographical environment, Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1944, pp, 162-209
15. Donald Worster, Dust bowl; the southern plains in the 1930s, New York, NY; Oxford University Press, 2004, pp, 7, 174-6
16. Ian Frazier, Great Plains, New York, NY; Picador, 1989, pp. 188-95.
17. Malin, Winter wheat, pp. 162-209. Malin could not read Russian.
18. Norman E. Saul, 'The migration of the Russian-Germans to Kansas', Kansas Historical Quarterly, 60, 1974, pp. 38-62
19. idem, 'Myth and history: Turkey Red wheat and the "Kansas Miracle"', Heritage of the Great Plains, 22, 3, 1989, pp. 1-13.
20. See Webb, The Great Plains
21. James C. Malin, 'The adaptation of the agricultural system to sub-humid environment', AH, 10, 1936, pp. 118-41
22. W. Kollmorgen, 'The woodsman's assaults on the domain of the cattleman', Annals of the Association of American Geographers (henceforth AAAG), 59, 1969, pp. 215-39
23. Gilbert C. Fite, 'Great Plains farming; a century of change and adjustment', AH, 51, 1977, pp. 244-56
24. Geoff Cunfer, On the Great Plains: agriculture and environment, College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press, 2005.
25. Norman E. Saul, Concord and conflict: the United States and Russia, 1867-1914, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1996, pp. 54-75, 75-85, 133-7, 148-51, 189-96, 207-10, 223-4, 275-8, 312 (quotation), 335-64, 365-74, 390-6, 465, 566-7
26. idem. Friends or foes? The United States and Soviet Russia, 1921-1941, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2006, pp. 44-97, 186-92, 197, 205, 363-5, 365-7.
27. 'Investigation and research in Russia', Experiment Station Record (henceforth ESR), 9,1897-8, pp. 201-5.
28. N. M. Tulaikov, 'Pochvennyc issledovaniya v Socdinennykh Shtatakh', Pochvovedenie, 10, 4, 1908, pp. 321-2.
29. NACP, RG 54, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Entry 29, Letters sent by M. A. Carleton, 1897-8, fos. 76-7, Carleton to D. G. Fairchild, 30 March 1898.
30. Mark Alfred Carleton, Russian cereals adapted for cultivation in the United States, USDA, Division of Botany, Bulletin no, 23, Washington, DC; GPO, 1900, pp. 2-4 (pagination from typescript in National Agricultural Library, Beltsville, MD)
31. idem. Macaroni wheats, USDA, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin no. 3, Washington, DC: GPO, 1901, pp. 18-19
32. See also Carleton, Small grains, pp. 233-6, 243-4.
33. Carleton, Russian cereals, pp. 4-6
34. idem, Macaroni wheats, pp. 13-15
35. De Kruif, Hunger fighters, p. 15. Before 1917, the Crimean region - Tauride province - included a band of steppes to the north of the Crimean peninsula. It is now part of Ukraine.
36. See, for example, Eduard R. Tsimmerman, 'Votchinnyi zakon v Amerike i nashi stepi', Otechestvennye zapiski, 234, 9, 1877, pp. 109-66.
37. Saul, Concord and conflict, pp. 65-7
38. V. V. Dokuchaev, 'K uchenie o zonakh prirody', in idem, Sochineniya, 9 vols,, Moscow-Leningrad, 1949-61, vol. 6 (first published 1899), pp. 400-1.
39. L. Prasolov, 'Kartografiya pochv na I mezhdunarodnom kongresse pochvovedov v Vashingtone (okonchanie)', Pochvovedenie, 3-4, 1928, pp. 222-3.
40. See also A. G. McCall, 'The transcontinental excursion', Soil Science, 25, 1, 1928, pp, 105-6.
41. C. F. Marbut, 'Russia and the United States in the world's wheat market', Geographical Review, 21, 1, 1931, pp. 7-10.
42. See Marbut, 'Russia and the United States', p, 11
43. I. M. Rubinow, Russia's wheat trade, USDA, Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin no. 65, Washington, DC: GPO, 1908, pp. 50-9, 64-5
44. M. P. Fedorov, Khlebnaya torgovlya v glavneishikh russkikh portakh i v Kenigsberge, reviewed in Sel'skoe Khozyaistvo i Lesovodstvo (henceforth SKhiL), 158, 1888, pp. 146-57.
45. Prasolov, 'Kartografiya', pp, 222-3.
46. See also N. C. Field, 'Environmental quality and land productivity: a comparison of the agricultural land base of the USSR and North America', Canadian Geographer, 12, 1968, pp. 1-14.
47. M. E. Faikus, 'Russia and the international wheat trade, 1861-1914', Economica, New Series, 33, 1966, pp. 416-29
48. B. K. Goodwin and T. J. Grennes, 'Tsarist Russia and the world wheat market', Explorations in Economic History, 35, 1998, pp, 405-430.
49. See 'Smes', Zhurnal Ministerstva Gosudarstvennykh Imushchestv (henceforth ZhMGI), 25, 1847, pp. 153-7
50. 'O sostoyanii sel'skogo khozyaistva v Severo-Amerikanskikh shtatakh', ZhMGI, 48, 1853, pp. 29-58
51. 'Neosnovatel'nost' opasenii neodolimogo sopernichestva v khlebnoi torgovle so storony Soedinennykh Shtatov', ZhMGl, 53, 1854, pp. 5-13.
52. See, for example, 'Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie', SKhiL, 112, 1873, pp. 1-11
53. Saraolevskii, 'Glavnye faktory khozyaistva v Soedinennykh Shtatakh Ameriki', SKhiL, 121, 1876, pp. 103-18
54. A. A. Radtsig, 'Statisticheskii ocherk proizvodstva pshenitsy i mezhdunarodnoi torgovli eyu', SKhiL, 156, 1887, pp. 257-96
55. 'Polozhenie Rossii na mezhdunarodnom khlebnom rynke', reviewed in SKhiL, 162, 1889, pp. 159-64
56. P. Struve, Kriticheskie zametki k voprosu ob ekonomicheskom razvitii Rossii, St Petersburg: Skorokhodov, 1894, pp, 207, 210, 260-6
57. S. Bulgakov, Kapitalizm i zemledelie, 2 vols, St Petersburg: Tikhonov, 1900, vol, 2, pp. 413-40.
58. A, Filipchenko, 'Prorzvodstvo, vyvoz khleba i blizhaishiya zadachi nashego khozyaistva', SKhiL, 160, 1889, pp. 137-55
59. Bulgakov, Kapitalizm i zemledelie, vol. 2, pp. 413-40.
60. See A, Mikhel', 'Zametki ob Amerrkanskikh topchakakh, molotilkakh i veyalkakh', SKhiL, 94, 1867, pp. 25-40
61. S. Panaev, Ocherk razvitie proizvodstva sel'sko-khozyaistvennikh mashin i orudii v Severno-Amerikanskikh Soedincnnikh Shtatakh', SKhiL, 199, 1900, pp. 171-206
62. P. Slezkin, 'Zametki po khlebnoi torgovle i inspektsii v Soedininnykh Shtatakh', SKhiL, 175, 1894, pp. 153-69.
63. P. I. Glukhovskii, Otchet general'nogo kommissara Russkogo otdela Vsemirnoi kolumbovoi vystavki v Chikago, St Petersburg; Kirshbaum, 1895, pp. 84-6
64. For Russian accounts, see A. A. Efron, Torzhestvuyushchaya Frantsiya: nabroski s parizhskogo vsemirnoi vystavki, St Petersburg: Avseenko, 1890, p. 99; PFA RAN, f. 184, op. 1, d. 138, 1. 5 ob.
65. S. Bogdanov, 'Zemledelie na Parizhskoi vsemirnoi vystavke 1900 goda', SKhiL, 199, 1900, pp. 539-41.
66. I. M. Rubinow, Russia's wheat surplus, USDA Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin no. 42, Washington, DC: GPO, 1906
67. idem, Russia's wheat trade
68. idem, Russian wheat and wheat flour in European markets, USDA, Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin no. 66, Washington, DC: GPO, 1908.
69. See D. Moon, 'Peasant migration and the settlement of Russia's frontiers, 1550-1897', Historical Journal, 30, 1997, pp. 863-7
70. idem, 'Agriculture and the environment on the steppes in the nineteenth century,' in Nicholas Breyfogle, Abby Schrader, and Willard Sunderland (eds,), Peopling the Russian periphery: borderland colonization in Eurasian history, Abingdon: Routledge, 2007, pp. 81-105
71. W. Sunderland, Taming the wild field: colonization and empire on the Russian steppe, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
72. For a much broader discussion of 'Eurasia's head start' over the Americas, see Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel: a short history of everybody for the last 13,000 Years, London: Vintage, 1998, pp. 354-75.
73. J. Atack, F. Bateman, and W. N. Parker, 'Northern Agriculture and the Westward Movement' in S. L. Engerman and R. E. Gallman (eds. ), The Cambridge economic history of the United States, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp, 285-328
74. Fred A. Shannon, The farmer's last frontier, agriculture, 1860-1897, New York, NY: Farrar & Rinehart, inc. , 1945.
75. See also Gilbert C. Fite, The farmers' frontier, 1865-1900, New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966, p. 216.
76. Bechasnov, 'Sel'sko-khoyaistvennye opytnye stantsii v Soedinennykh Shatakh Severnoi Ameriki', Zapiski Obshchestva Sel'skogo Khozyaistva Yuzhnoi Rossii, 9, 1901, p, 58.
77. T. J, Kloberdanz, 'Plainsmen of three continents: Volga German adaptation to steppe, prairie, and Pampa', in F. Lubke (ed. ), Ethnicity on the Great Plains, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1980, pp. 54-72.
78. See Carleton R. Ball, 'The history of American wheat improvement', AH, 4, 1930, pp. 48-71
79. A. L. Olmstead and P. W. Rhode, 'Biological globalization: the other grain invasion', in Timothy J. Hatton, Kevin H. O'Rourke, and Alan M, Taylor (eds. ), The new comparative economic history, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007, pp. 115-40.
80. C. F. Marbut, 'Agriculture in the United States and Russia: a comparative study of natural conditions', Geographical Review, 21, 4, 1931, p. 605.
81. Alfred J. Crosby, Ecological imperialism: the biological expansion of Europe, 900-1900, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp, 2-7, 20-1, 295-308.
82. See also Moon, 'Peasant migration', pp. 881-6.
83. See T. Steinberg, Down to earth: nature's role in American history, New York, NY; Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 116-37
84. David Christian, 'Inner Eurasia as a unit of world history', Journal of World History, 5, 2, 1994, pp. 173-211
85. Moon, 'The environmental history of the Russian steppes; Vasilii Dokuchaev and the harvest failure of 1891, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 15, 2005, pp. 149-74.
86. See M. N. Stroganova et al. (eds. ), Zapovedniki evropeiskoi chasti RSFSR: II, Moscow: Mysl', 1989, pp. 26-7
87. Royal Shaw Kellogg, Forest belts of western Kansas and Nebraska, USDA, Forest Service, Bulletin no. 66, Washington, DC: GPO, 1905.
88. See Moon, 'Environmental history'
89. John R. Staples, Cross-cultural encounters on the Ukrainian steppe: settling the Molochna basin, 1783-1861, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003, pp. 45-143
90. Malin, 'Adaptation', pp, 118-41
91. Steinberg, Down to earth, pp, 116, 123, 134-6
92. See Bradley H. Baltensperger, 'Agricultural change among Great Plains Russian Germans', AAAG, 73, 1983, pp, 75-88.
93. See A. Klaus, Nashi Kolonii: opyty i materialy po istorii i statistike inostrannoi kolonizatsii v Rossii, St Petersburg: V. V. Nusval't, 1869
94. Cornelius Krahn, From the steppes to the prairies, 1874-1949, Newton, KS: Mennonite Publishing Office, 1949, pp. 98-9.
95. See Cornelius J. Dyck (ed. ), The Mennonite encyclopedia, 5 vols. , Hillsboro, KS; Mennonite Brethren Publishing House, 1955-95, vol. 1, pp. 23-6, vol. 4, p, 939
96. G. L. Gavel', 'Sravnitel'nye ocherk! sel'skogo khozyaistva i agrarnogo polozheniya poselyan v nekotorykh mestakh Rossii', SKhiL, 117, 1874, pp. 55-75
97. N. K. Kalageorgi and B. M. Borisov, Ekskursiya na reku Molochnuyu, St Petersburg: V. F. Demakov, 1878, part 1, pp. 59-102
98. Staples, Cross-cultural encounters, pp. 72-84, 114-42,165-78.
99. Judith Pallot and Denis J. B. Shaw, Landscape and settlement in Romanov Russia, 1613-1917, Oxford: Clarendon, 1990, pp. 80-111
100. A. Chelentsev, 'Obzor russkoi literatury po sel'skomu khozyaistvu', SKhiL, 228, 1908, pp. 156-7.
101. See Saul, 'Migration', pp. 41-4.
102. See P, Petrov, 'Kholera v Dnepropetrovskom i Berdyanskom uezdakh Tavricheskor gubernri, 1872 g. ', in Sbornik sochinenii po sudebnoi meditsine, vol. 3, St Petersburg, 1872, pp. 18-22. I am grateful to Dr Charlotte Henze for this reference.
103. See V. Postnikov, 'Molochanskie i Khoritskie Nemetskie kolonii: Khozyaistvenno-statisticheskii ocherk', SKhiL, 140, 1882, p, 39.
104. Kalageorgi and Borisov, Ekskursiya, p. 58.
105. See Krahn, From the steppes, pp, 7-8, 14, 27-49, 98-101
106. Mennonite encyclopedia, vol. 4, p, 838
107. Postnikov, 'Molochanskie i Khoritskie Nemetskie kolonii', SKhiL, 139, 1882, p. 97.
108. See also James L. Forsythe, 'Environmental considerations in the settlement of Ellis County, Kansas', AH, 51, 1977, pp. 38-50.
109. Noble L. Prentis, 'The Mennonites in Kansas', The Commonwealth, 15 October 1874
110. Mark Alfred Carleton, 'Hard wheats winning their way'. Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1914, Washington, DC: GPO, 1915, p. 399.
111. Mennonite Heritage Museum, P. O. Box 231, 200 N. Poplar, Goessel, KS 67053 http://skyways. lib. ks. us/ museums/goessel/ (consulted 1 May 2008). I am very grateful to Mrs Darlene Schroeder, the Director of the museum, and other members of the local community for their hospitality when I visited the museum and the Alexanderwohl church in April 2007.
112. K,S. Quisenberry and L. P, Reitz, 'Turkey wheat: the cornerstone of an empire', AH, 48, 1974, p. 98.
113. See also Robert G. Dunbar, 'Turkey wheat', AH, 48, 1974, pp. 111-14.
114. 'Wheat centennial proclaimed', Mennonite Life, 28, 2, 1973, p. 46 (http://www. bcthelks. edu/ mennonitelife/pre2000/1973june. pdf, consulted 29 August 2007).
115. 'About Kansas agriculture', http://www. nass. usda. gov/ks/ksaginfo. htm (consulted 1 May 2008).
116. N. Saul, 'Myth and history', pp. 1-3.
117. See also idem, 'Migration', pp. 60-1. Saul seems not to have consulted the Warkentin-Carleton correspondence.
118. Carleton, 'Successful wheat growing in semiarid districts', Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture 1900, Washington, DC: GPO, 1901, pp. 531, 534-5, 539-42.
119. P. Slezkin, 'Zametki o minuvshei vystavke v Chikage', SKh i L, 174, 1893, p. 376
120. F, Keppen, 'O polevodstve íTavricheskoi gubernii i o vrednykh na nego vliyaniyakh', ZhMGI, 83, 1863, p. 98; Faikus, 'Russia', p. 418, n. 3
121. 'Pshenitsa', in S. M. Bogdanov, Illyustrirovannyi sel'skokhozyaistvennyi slovar', Kiev: Barskii, 1891-[5), pp. 1081-2.
122. Mark Alfred Carleton, 'Improvements in wheat culture', Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture 1896, Washington, DC: GPO, 1897, p, 492
123. idem, Small grains, pp. 27-86.
124. Saul, 'Myth and history', pp. 3-6, 9
125. idem, 'Myth and history', pp. 5, 7, 8, 13, n. 28.
126. 'Pshenitsa', in Bogdanov, Illyustrirovannyi, pp. 1087-8.
127. J. Allen Clark, John H. Martin, and Carleton R. Ball, Classification of American wheat varieties, USDA, Bulletin no. 1074, Washington, DC: GPO, 1922, p. 145.
128. idem, 'Successful wheat growing', pp. 535, 537.
129. See also Clark et al. , Classification, pp. 1, 144-7, 183-92.
130. The Mennonite encyclopedia, vol. 4, p. 939
131. Carleton, 'Hard wheats', p. 399. Malin refers to this story: Winter wheat, p. 166.
132. Yu. Witte, 'O sel'skom khozyaistve v Khersonskoi, Tavricheskoi i Ekaterinskoi guberniyaklr, ZhMGI, 8, 1844, p. 105
133. K. Bunitskii, 'Voprosy i otvety o vozdclyvanii pshenitsy: stat'ya vtoraya', in I. Palimpsesfov (ed. ), Sbornik statei o sel'skom khozyaistve yuga Rossii, Odessa: P. Frantsova, 1868, pp. 311-12.
134. F. Keppen, 'O polevodstve v Tavricheskoi gubernii i o vrednykh na nego vliyaniyakh', ZhMGi, 83,1863, p. 98
135. Yu. Ya. Witte, Ocherk khlebopashestva na Krymskom poluostrov', SKhiL, 8, 1870, pp. 241-6.
136. F. Keppen, 'Sel'skokhozyaistvennoe polozhenie Tavricheskoi gubernii v 1863 g. ', ZhMGI, 86, 1864, p. 478.
137. M. Sofronov, 'Pshenitsa', Polnaya entsiklopediya russkogo sel'skogo khozyaistva, 12 vols. , St Petersburg: Devrien, 1900-1912, vol. 8, col. 6
138. See also Bennett and Farnsworth, 'World wheat acreage', p. 269
139. V. E. Postnikov, Yuzhno-Russkoe krest'yanskoe khozyaistva, Moscow: I. N. Kushnerev, 1891, p. 178.
140. Malin, Winter wheat, pp. 204-5 (Malin doubted this story); Warkentin collection, Warkentin to Carleton, 31 May 1900.
141. Malin, Winter wheats, pp. 179-87.
142. ESR, 8, 1896-7, p. 594.
143. NACP, RG 54, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Entry 1, General Correspondence of the Office of the Chief, 1900-8, box 7, Burleson-Carleton, File Carleton, Carleton to Mr Galloway, 20 October 1894
144. Carleton, 'Successful wheat growing', p. 531.
145. Warkentin collection, Warkentin to Carleton, 31 May 1900.
146. See, for example, Odesskoe uezdnoe zemskoe sobranie XXVI ocherednoi sessii, review in SKhiL, 181, 1891, p. 17
147. S. Kizenkov, 'Sel'skokhozyaistvcnnye voprosy v russkoi pechafi za 1897 g. ', SKhiL, 188, 1898, p. 694.
148. NACP, RG 54, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Entry 29, Letters sent by M. A. Carleton, 1897-98, vol. 1, Carleton to Fairchild, 27 June 1898; Carleton, Russian cereals, pp. 8-9, 12-43 (quotations from pp. 8-9, 5, 12, 13).
149. On the issue of durum wheat, Russian specialists may have drawn Carleton's attention to an article in the March 1899 issue of the Russian Ministry of Agriculture's journal, which argued that durum wheats were better suited to hot, dry climates than winter wheats: S. Toporkov, 'K biologii ozimnoi pshenitsy', SKhiL, 192, 1899, p. 495.
150. Warkentin collection, Carleton to Galloway, 5 June 1900, and 18 June 1900.
151. Warkentin collection, Warkentin to Carleton, 5 May 1900, 31 May 1900, 2 July 1900; Carlcton to Galloway, 18 June 1900.
152. Warkentin collection, Warkentin to Carleton, 9 November 1900; Carleton to Warkentin, 13 November 1900, 12 January 1901.
153. See also E. Chernyaev, 'Zametki o yuzhnorusskikh pshenitakh', SKhiL, 118, 1875, p. 81-2.
154. Warkentin collection, Carleton to Warkentin, 16 November 1900.
155. Carleton, 'Successful wheat growing'; idem, Russian cereals, and references in subsequent notes.
156. Warkentin collection, Warkentin to Carleton, 9 November 1900; Malin, Winter Wheat, p. 205.
157. NACP, RG 54, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, General Records, Entry 1, General Correspondence of the Office of the Chief, 1900-8, box 7, various letters from the Bureau to Carleton, August 1901, and further correspondence in subsequent years.
158. NACP, RG 54, General Records, Entry 1, General Correspondence of the Office of the Chief, 1900-8, box 7, Carleton to Chief of the Bureau, 15 June 1907
159. Carleton, Lessons from the grain-rust epidemic of 1904, USDA, Farmers' Bulletin no. 219, Washington, DC: GPO, 1905, pp. 14-15.
160. NACP, RG 54, General Records, Entry 1, General Correspondence of the Office of the Chief, 1900-8, box 7, Carleton to Galloway, 3 August 1901, 11 September 1902, 18 September 1903; Chief of Bureau to Carleton, 9 November 1904.
161. Carleton and Joseph S. Chamberlain, The Commercial status of durum wheat, USDA, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin no, 70, Washington, DC: GPO, 1904
162. See also Olmstead and Rhode, 'Biological globalization'.
163. Carleton and Chamberlain, Commercial status, p. 9
164. See also Mary W. M. Hargreaves, 'The durum wheat controversy', AH, 42, 1968, pp. 211-29.
165. idem, Small grains, p. 116.
166. Tulaikov, Ocherki, p. 76
167. Sofronov, 'Pshenitsa', pp. 27-31
168. E. I. Matrosov, 'Godovoi otchet byuro rastenievodstva ministerstva zemledeliya Soedinennykh Shtatov za 1906 god',SKhiL, 227,1907, pp. 227-8.
169. J. W. Morrison, 'Marquis wheat: triumph of scientific endeavor', AH, 34, 1960, pp. 182-8
170. idem, 'From a single seed: tracing the Marquis wheat success story in Canada to its roots in the Ukraine', Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 12 June 2007, http://www4. agr. gc. ca/ AAFC-AAC/display-afficher. do?id=1181318948130 (consulted 29 August 2007).
171. Richard Manning's account in Grassland, New York, NY: Penguin, 1995, p. 172 is mistaken.
172. idem, Small grains, p. 161. Carleton used the term 'Russia' to include present-day Ukraine.
173. Olmstead and Rhode, 'Biological innovation', p. 48.
174. Gary M. Paulsen, 'International contributions to the improvement and marketing of Kansas wheat', Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 126, February 2000, http://www. oznet. ksu. edu/library/crpsl2/SRL126. pdf (consulted 10 January 2008)
175. Dana G. Dalrymple, 'Changes in wheat varieties and yields in the United States, 1919-1984', AH, 62, 1988, pp. 20-36
176. A. L. Olmstead and P. W. Rhode, 'The Red Queen and the hard reds: productivity growth in American wheat, 1800-1940', Journal of Economic History, 62, 2002, pp. 929-66.
177. NACP, RG21, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Entry 30, Records of the Division of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Foreign Correspondence, 1900-34, box 8, Files Russia L-Z, correspondence between J. W. Pincus and M. A. McCall, July-September 1928.
178. See Saul, Friends or foes?, pp. 1-315.
179. Olmstead and Rhode, 'The Red Queen and the hard reds'.
180. Lyster Hoxic Dewey, The Russian thistle, USDA, Division of Botany, Bulletin no. 15, Washington, DC: GPO, 1894; ESR, 6, 1894-5, pp. 144, 551-3
181. James A. Young, 'The public response to the catastrophic spread of Russian thistle (1880) and Halogeton (1945)', AH, 62, 1988, pp. 122-30.
182. Crosby, Ecological imperialism, p. 290.
183. A. Kh, Benik, 'Obzor deistvii yugovostochnoi uchebnoi fermy v Samarskoi gubernii', ZhMGI, 63, 1857, p. 119
184. N. Vasil'ev, 'Botanicheskie raznovidnosti i sorta khlebnykh rastenii v Rossii', SKhiL, 217, 1905, pp. 13-19
185. V. V. Talanov, 'Predislovie', Yarovaya pshenitsa, Moscow; Novaya Derevnya, 1923, pp, 3-4
186. 'Po povodu predstoyashchei v 1896 godu deyatel'nosti Departamenta Zemledeliya', SKhiL, 81, 1896, p. 4
187. See R. A. and Z. A. Medvedev, trans. Andrew R. Durkin, Khrushchev: the years in power, London: Oxford University Press, 1977, pp. 62-5, 123-8.
188. E. Chernyaev, 'Ekonomicheskie i khozyarstvennye zemetki', SKhiL, 119, 1875, pp. 311-14.
189. V. V. Talanov, 'Predislovie', pp, 3-4
190. Bertrand M. Patenaude, The big show in Bololand: the American relief expedition to Soviet Russia in the famine of 1921, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002, esp. pp. 146-7.
191. V. P. Timoshenko, 'The wheat problem in U. S. S. R. ', Journal of Farm Economics, 14, 1932, p. 286
192. R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and G. S. Wheatcroft, The economic transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, p, 316.
193. Davies et al. , Economic transformation, pp. 206-10.
194. See R. W. Davies, The socialist offensive: the collectivisation of Soviet agriculture 1929-1930, London; Macmillan, 1980
195. Dana G. Dalrymple, 'American technology and Soviet agricultural development, 1924-1933', AH, 40, 1966, pp. 187-206
196. Deborah Fitzgerald, 'Blinded by technology: American agriculture in the Soviet Union, 1928-1932', AH, 70, 1996, pp. 459-86.
197. Worster, Dust bowl, pp. 10-11, 89.
198. R. E. Bowers, 'American diplomacy, the 1933 Wheat Conference, and recognition of the Soviet Union', AH, 40, 1966, pp, 39-52.
199. Timoshenko, 'The wheat problem', pp, 292, 294.
200. See also Marbut and Timoshenko, 'The expansion of the wheat area in arid Russia', Geographical Review, 23, 1933, pp. 479-83.
201. Lazar Volin, A century of Russian agriculture, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970, p. 566.
202. Quisenberry and Reitz, 'Turkey Wheat', p. 98.