The 'regime-model' of fascism: A typology

European History Quarterly

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2000, Pages

  Kallis, Aristotle A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Authoritarianism; Comparative fascism; Leadership; Nazism; Regime

Indexed keywords

EID: 60950512303     PISSN: 02656914     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/026569140003000104     Document Type: Article

References (119)

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6. See, for example, S.J. Woolf, ed., European Fascism (London 1968), and The Nature of Fascism (London 1968)
7. S.U. Larsen, B. Hagtvet and J.P. Myklebust, eds, Who Were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism (Bergen, Oslo, Tromsø 1980)
8. G.L. Mosse, ed., International Fascism (London 1979)
9. P. Hayes, ed., Fascism (London 1973)
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11. R. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London & New York 1994)
12. S.G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-45 (London 1997)
13. J.J. Linz, 'Some Notes Towards a Comparative Study of Fascism in Sociological Historical Perspective', in W. Laqueur, ed., Fascism: A Reader's Guide. Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography (H armondsworth 1979), 21 ff.
14. 'Political Space and Fascism as Late-Comer', in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust, eds. Who Were the Fascists?, 153-4
15. R.O. Paxton, 'The Five Stages of Fascism', Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), 1-23 (here 11). Cf. Milza, P., Fascisme français: passe et present (Paris 1987)
16. Cf. the 'nationalism-plus' formula put forward by L. Birken, Hitler as Philosophe. Remnants of the Enlightenment in National Socialism (Westport. CT & London 1995)
17. Cf. H. M ommsen, 'Ausnahmezustand als Herrschaftstechnik des Nationalsozialistischen-Regimes', in M. Funke, ed., Hitler, Deutschland und die Mächte. M aterialien zur A ussenpolitik des Dritten Reiches (Düsseldorf 1977), 30-45
18. G riffin, Nature of Fascism, Ch. 5
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29. P.G. Schmitter, "The "Regime d'Exception"' That Became the Rule: Forty-eight Years of Authoritarian Domination in Portugal', in I. Graham and H. Makler, eds, Contemporary Portugal. The Revolution and its Antecedents (Austin, TX 1979), 32-63, For a short exposition of the National Syndicalists' disagreements with the Salazar regime
30. see Preto, 'Ersatz Fascism", translated in R, Griffin, ed., Fascism (Oxford & New York 1995), 194-5
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32. P. Preston, 'Populism and Parasitism: the Falange and the Spanish Establishment', in Blinkhorn, ed., Fascists and Conservatives, 138-57
33. See also José Antonio Primo de Rivera, 'Total Feeling', translated in G riffin, ed., Fascism, 187-8
34. H. Thomas, 'Spain', in S.J. Woolf, ed. European Fascism (London 1968), 296-8
35. M. Blinkhorn, 'Introduction: Allies, Rivals or Antagonists? Fascists and Conservatives in Modern Europe', in Blinkhorn. ed., Fascists and Conservatives, 1-13; Payne, 'Spain', 201 ff
36. D. Close, 'Conservatism, Authoritarianism and Fascism in Greece, 19 15-45', in Blinkhorn, ed., Fascists and Conservatives, 205 ff
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38. Z. Barbu, 'Psycho-Historical and Sociological Perspectives on the Iron Guard, the Fascist Movement of Romania', in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust, eds. Who Were the Fascists?, 382-7
39. and 'Romania' in Woolf, ed., European Fascism, 146-66
40. E. Weber, 'Romania', in Rogger and Weber, eds, The European Right, 517 ff
41. B. Vago. 'Fascism in Eastern Europe', in Laqueur, ed., Fascism. A Reader's Guide, 217-18, 222-3
42. See also Codreanu's own statement 'The Resurrection of the Race', in Griffin, ed., Fascism., 221-2
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44. Deák, 'Hungary', in European Right, 377-81
45. G riffin, Nature of Fascism, 127-8
46. Carsten, Rise of Fascism, 169-75
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48. J. Eros, 'Hungary', in Woolf, ed., European Fascism, 111-45. For Szálasi's notion of 'Hungarism' see G riffin, ed., Fascism, 223-6
49. A. Whiteside, 'Austria', in Rogger and Weber, eds, European Right, 334 ff
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51. F.L. Carsten, Fascist Movements in Austria. From Schörterer to Hitler (London & Beverly Hills 1979), Chs. 6, 8, 10
52. J. Lewis, 'Conservatives and Fascists in Austria, 1918-34', in Blinkhorn, ed., Fascists and Conservatives, 103-14
53. B.F. Pauley, 'Nazis and Heimwehr Fascists: the Struggle for Supremacy in Austria, 1918-1938', in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust, eds, W o Were the Fascists?, 232-3
54. L. Jedlicka, 'The Austrian Heimwehr', in G.L. Mosse, ed. International Fascism: New Thoughts and New Approaches (London & Beverly Hills 1979), 223-40
55. J. Gehl, Austria, Germany and the A nschluss, 1931-1938 (London 1963)
56. G. Botz, 'The Changing Patterns of Social Support for Austrian National Socialism (1918-1945)', in Larsen, H agtvet and Myklebust, eds, Who Were the Fascists?., 202-45; Carsten, Fascist Movements in A ustria, Ch. 14
57. J. Noakes, "German Conservatives and the Third Reich: an Ambiguous Relationship', in Blinkhorn, ed., Fascists and Conservatives, 71-97
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63. D. Mack Smith, Italy and its M anarchy (New Haven, CT & London 1989)
64. M. Knox, 'Conquest. Domestic and Foreign, in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany', Journal of Modern History., 56 (1984), 27 ff
65. For the relations between state and Church in Fascist Italy see D.A. Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy (Oxford 1970)
66. J.F. Pollard, The Vatican a d Italian Fascism, 1929-1932. A Study in Conflict (Cambridge 1985). For the competition between the two institutions for control over education see T.M. Mazzatosta, Il regime fascista tra educazione e propaganda (1935-1943) (Bologna 1978)
67. R. Sarti, 'Italian Fascism: Radical Politics and Conservative Goals', in Blinkhorn, ed., Fascists and Conservatives, 14-30
68. Griffin, N ature of Fascism., 161-2
69. R. Carr, Modern S pain, 1875-1980 (Oxford 1980), Ch. 10
70. Schmitter, 'Regime d'Exception', passim; Corporatism and Public Policy in A uthoritarian Portugal (London & Beverly Hills. CA 1975), esp. 12 ff.
71. A.C. Costa Pinto, Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism. Problems of Interpretation (New York 1995)
72. H. Martins, 'Portugal', in Woolf, ed., European Fascism, 302-36
73. Linz, 'Political Space and Fascism as a Late-Comer'. 169-70
74. See also R. Kühnl, 'Contemporary Approaches to Fascism: A Survey of Paradigms', in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust, eds. Who Were the Fascists?, 28-9
75. R. Wilford, 'Fascism', in R. Eccleshall, V. Geoghegan, R. Jay, M. Kenny, I. McKenzie and R. Wilford, eds, Political Ideologies. An Introduction (London & New York 1984), 194-6
76. S. Andreski, 'Fascists as Moderates', in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust, eds, Who Were the Fascists?, 52-5. For Mussolini's charismatic power
77. see P. Melograni, The Cult of the Duce in Mussolini's Italy", in International Fascism, 73-90
78. E. Gentile, Il culto del littorio. La sacralizzazione della politico nell'Italia fascista (Rome & Bari 1993)
79. Fo Hitler's charisma see J. Nyomarkay, Charisma and Factionalism in the Nazi Party (M inneapolis 1967)
80. K.D. Bracher, 'The Role of Hitler: Perspectives of Interpretation', in Fascism. A Reader's Guide, 193-212
81. Payne, 'Spain', 200-5
82. Payne, History of Fascism, 252-67
83. Gallagher, 'Portugal', 160 ff
84. Carsten, Rise, of Fascism, 189-93
85. C.W, Schum, 'The D ollfuss-Schuschnigg Regime: Fascist or Authoritarian', in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust, eds, Who Were the Fascists?, 249-53
86. M. Clemenz, Gesellschaftliche Ursprünge des Faschismus (Frankfurt 1972), 206-32; Erös, 'Hungary', 126 ff
87. For the importance of the racial crusading element in Nazism see M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State. Germany 1933-1945 (Cambridge 1991)
88. D. Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and, the Holocaust (London 1996)
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92. For the two concepts of cittadino-soldato and uomo novo see M. Isnenghi, 'Il mito di potenza', in A. Del Boca, M. Legnani and M.C. Rossi, eds, Il regime fascista. Storia e storiografia (Rome & Bari 1995), 144-5
93. P.V. Canistraro, 'Mussolini's Cultural Revol tion: Fascist or Nationalist?', Journal of Contemporary History, 7 (1972), 129 ff
94. For an extreme critique of the regime's organizational incapacity see D. Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire (London 1982), and Mussolini (London 1981)
95. and E.R. Tannenbaum, The Fascist Experience. Italian Society and Culture, 1922-1945 (New York 1972)
96. See Griffin, Nature, of Fascism, Ch. 5
97. Merkl, 752-81
98. N. O'Sullivan, Fascism (London & Melbourne 1983)
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100. Cf. M. Neocleous, Fascism (London 1997), Ch. 1 and Sternhell, op. cit., 334 ff
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102. See the selection of documentary evidence from the implementation of N azi racial policies during the war in J. Noakes, and G. Pridham, eds, Nazism. A Documentary Reader, Vol. 3: Foreign Relations and Racial Extermination (Exeter 1988)
103. E. Susmel, and D. Susmel, eds, Opera Omnia di Benito Mussolini (Florence and Rome 1951-78), Vol. XXIV, 5-16 (Speech to the Quinquennial Assembly of the Regime, 10.3.1929)
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107. Knox, 'Conquest', 1-23
108. For the policies in Libya see G. Rochat. II colonialismo italiano (Turin 1973), 103 ff
109. For the quasi-apartheid policies in Ethiopia see L. Goglia, 'Note sul razzismo eoloniale fascista', Storia Contemporanea, 19 (1988), 1223-66
110. For the economic and military deficiencies of the Italian system see F. Minniti, 'Aspetti della politica fascista degli armamenti dal 1935 al 1943', in R. De Felice, ed., L'Italia fra Tedeschi e Alleati. La politica estera fascista e la seconda guerra mondiale (Bologna 1973), and II problema degli armamenti nella preparazione militare italiana dal 1935 al 1943'. Storia Contemporanea, 2 (1978), 1-56
111. M. Knox, 'Expansionist Zeal, Fighting Power, and Staying Power in the Italian and German Dictatorships', in R. Bessel, ed., Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Comparisons and Contrasts (Cambridge 1996), 115-33
112. J.J. Sadkovich, 'The Italo-Greek War in Context: Italian Priorities and Axis Diplomacy', Journal of Contemporary History, 28 (1993), 493-64
113. and 'Understanding Defeat: Reappraising Italy's Role in World War II', Journal of Contemporary History, 24 (1989), 27-61
114. For the implementation of the anti-Semitic legislation see J. Steinberg, All or Nothing. The Axis and the Holocaust, 1941-42 (London 1990)
115. For Franco's negative replies to the German proposal for a joint front against the British see DGFP, D, 11, 220/207/227/246/476/491
116. Clogg. op. cit. For the attempts for Balkan co-operation in the 1930s see B.M. Janković, The Balkans in International Relations (Basingstoke & London 1988), 149-64
117. M.L. Smith, The Ionian Vision. Greece in Asia M inor (London 1973)
118. B.F. Pauley, Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis. A History of A ustrian National Socialism (London 1981)
119. S.G. Payne, Fascism. Comparison and Definition (Madison 1980), 6 ff