From "punks" to geopoliticians: U.S. and Panamanian teenagers and the 1964 Canal Zone riots

Americas

Volumn 58, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 395-418

  McPherson, Alan ^a  

^a HOWARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 60950247130     PISSN: 00031615     EISSN: 15336247     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tam.2002.0012     Document Type: Review

References (77)

1. Roberto Méndez, Panama 9 de enero de 1964 (Panama City: Imprenta de la Universidad de Panamá, 1999)
2. Jaime Suchlicki, "Sources of Student Violence in Latin America: An Analysis of the Literature," Latin American Research Review 7 (1972), pp. 31-46
3. For a survey of early scholarship on pre-adults and politics see Richard Niemi and Barbara Sobierszek, "Political Socialization," Annual Review of Sociology 3 (1977), pp. 209-33
4. Two leading studies were Fred Greenstein, Children and Politics (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965)
5. and Robert Hess and Judith Torney, The Development of Political Attitudes in Children (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, 1968)
6. Some of the scholarship on the international aspects of political socialization has looked at the impact of colonial or neocolonial education. It has been an especially rich vein for discovering patterns of resistance and accommodation to hegemony. Theoretical discussions can be found in Philip Atlback and Gail Kelly, eds., Education and the Colonial Experience 2d ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1984)
7. especially Remi Clignet, "Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don't: The Dilemmas of Colonizer-Colonized Relations," pp. 77-95
8. and Sharon Stephens, ed., Children and the Politics of Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995)
9. More specific case studies of children and national identity include Charles Stafford, "Good Sons and Virtuous Mothers: Kinship and Chinese Nationalism in Taiwan," Man 27 (June 1992), pp. 363-78
10. and Edward Friedman, "Reconstructing China's National Identity: A Southern Alternative to Mao-Era Ant-Imperialist Nationalism," Journal of Asian Studies 53 (February 1994), pp. 67-91
11. On Latin American children, see Patricia Kasschau, "Political Alienation in a Sample of Young Mexican Children," Sociology and Social Research 60 (April 1976), pp. 290-313
12. Omo Omoruyi, "The Identity Question in Plural Societies: Findings from Guyana," SOCIOL 26 (1976), pp. 150-61
13. and José María Cadenas, El pensamiento politíco de los niños (una aproximación piagetina) (Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1991). Cadenas has a particularly useful bibliography on political socialization
14. Mark Szuchman, "Childhood Education and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Argentina: The Case of Buenos Aires," Hispanic American Historical Review 70 (February 1990), pp. 109-38
15. Mariano Plotkin, Mañana es San Perón: propaganda, rituales políticos y educación en el régimen peronista (1946-1955) (Buenos Aires: Ariel Historia Argentina, 1993)
16. Reid Reading, "Political Socialization in Colombia and the United States: An Exploratory Study," Midwest Journal of Political Science 12 (August 1968), pp. 352-81
17. Rafael Segovia, "Nacionalismo e imagen del mundo exterior en los niños mexicanos," Foro internacional 13 (October-December 1972), pp. 272-91
18. Robert Coles, The Political Life of Children (New York: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986)
19. Kasschau, "Political Alienation"
20. Omoruyi, 'The Identity Question"
21. Cadenas, El pensamiento político
22. Stephen Wolff Frenkel, "Jungle Stories: North American Representations of Tropical Panama," The Geographical Review 86 (July 1996), pp. 317-33
23. Stephen Wolff Frenkel, "Cultural Imperialism and the Development of the Panama Canal Zone, 1912-1960," (PLD. diss., Syracuse University, 1992), p. 17
24. On West Indians, see Michael Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985)
25. On U.S.-Panamanian relations and U.S. perceptions of them, see Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1992)
26. Walter LaFeber, The Panama Canal in Historical Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978)
27. J. Michael Hogan, The Panama Canal in American Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986)
28. and John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal 1903-1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Major shows the Canal Zone was legally an "unorganized possession" like Guam and American Samoa. Of all kinds of U.S. overseas arrangements, it was the loosest
29. " US Citizens Eye Zonians' Attitude," The Panama American, 24 February 1960
30. Major, Prize Possession, p. 72
31. Herbert Knapp and Mary Knapp, Red, White, and Blue Paradise: The American Canal Zone in Panama (San Diego, Calif: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1984), n.p., 26
32. One the similarities between the Zone and socialism, see Peggy Poor, "A View from the Canal," New Republic, 22 February 1964, pp. 13-14
33. Mark Falcoff notes the Zone's "architectural uniformity and artificial tranquility - a town miraculously free of billboards, trash, and random commercial development," in Panama's Canal: What Happens When the United States Gives a Small Country What It Wants (Washington, D.C.: The AEI Press, 1998), p. 28
34. Jhan Robbins, "The Children Who Caused a Crisis," Redbook, August 1964, p. 111
35. The Panama Canal Company made a count and found that its employees came from all forty-eight states, and that only eleven percent came from South or Gulf states. "New York Heads List of 48 States as Residence for Canal Employees," Panama Canal Review, 3 December 1954, p. 15
36. Kathleen Diamond, "Personal Memories-Riots of 1964 Panama," letter to author, June 2001
37. Vicki Dunning Howe, "A Personal Remembrance: The Flagpole Incident," unpublished memoir
38. Edward Scott, Jr., "The Political Orientations of Panamanian and Canal Zone Students: A Comparative Case Study in the Political Socialization of Latin American and American Youth" (master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1964), p. 59
39. San Rof cited in "Inside an Ugly Fight," Life, 24 January 1964, p. 30
40. Jean Bailey, Panama Pattie and Other Children (Panama City: Panama American Publishing Company, 1956), n. p
41. Enid Johnson, Runaway Balboa (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1938), n. p
42. Robbins, "Children," p. 114
43. Trevor Armbrister, "Panama: Why They Hate Us," Saturday Evening Post, 7 March 1964, p. 77
44. Howe, "Remembrance."
45. Hess and Torney, Political Attitudes, p. 33
46. "Mail Box," The Panama American, 11 October 1958, p. 2
47. Jules Dubois, Danger over Panama (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964), pp. 244-45
48. Eric Jackson, "The Martyrs of 1964," available from www.csbrats.com/Jackson/martyrs/martyrs.htm
49. See also Daniel Goldrich's informative analyses of university students in his Radical Nationalism: The Political Orientation of Panamanian Law Students (East Lansing, Mich.: Bureau of Social and Political Research, College of Business and Public Service, Michigan State University, 1961)
50. and Sons of the Establishment: Elite Youth in Panama and Costa Rica (Chicago, IU.: Rand McNally and Company, 1966)
51. John and Mavis Biesanz, The People of Panama (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), p. 156
52. For example, historians Ernesto Castillero and Humberto Ricord, Canal treaties negotiator Juan Antonio Tack, statesmen Jorge Illueca, Manuel Solí's Palma, and Ernesto de la Guardia, author Joaquín Beleño, and the infamous Manuel Noriega were all from the IN; Mary Alice Abrego Hayward, "Political Opinions of Panamanian Elite High School Youth: A Comparison of 1961-63 Students to 1989 Students" (master's thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1990)
53. Jorge Conte-Porras, La rebelión de las esfinges. Historia del movimiento estudiantil panameño (Panama City: n. pub., 1977), p. 9
54. For explicitly nationalistic teaching materials, see M. M. Alba, Estampas panameñas (Panama City: Departamento de Bellas Artes & Publicaciones, Ministerio de Education, 1959)
55. Jackson, 'The Martyrs of 1964."
56. Jackson, "The Martyrs of 1964."
57. Zenaida Pérez de Sánchez, "Prólogo," pp. 16-19
58. and Mario Augusto Rodriguez, "Joaquin Belefio y la literatura anti-imperialista," p. 56, in Lotería (July-September 1988)
59. Rafael Ruiloba, "Joaquín Beleño: El poder sagrado de la dignidad y la verdad en la trilogía del canal," Loteria 412 (May-June 1997), p. 78
60. Joaquín Beleño, Luna verde (Panama City: Manfer, 1950), p. 37
61. "Army Guards Canal Zone Border," The Panama American, 4 November 1959, p. 10
62. Moreno to Ernesto de la Guardia, memorandum, 12 July 1958, Visitas Oficiales a Panamá, 1958-1959 Volumen No. 2, Archivo del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, República de Panamá
63. Balboa High School, The Zonian, yearbook, 1964
64. Despite what Jenkins's yearbook says, one classmate disputes that he was an ROTC cadet, Fisher interview. Jenkins cited in "Inside an Ugly Fight," Life, 24 January 1964, p. 30
65. Armbrister, "Why They Hate Us," p. 79
66. "En 'Life': Otra infamia de la prensa gringa," La Prensa, 3 February 1964, p. 12
67. Ricardo Martínez, Sangre en Panamá (Panama City: Ministerio de Educación, 1967), pp. 176-77
68. Since the 1950s the PCC reorganized from an independent government agency into a non-profit business corporation. Knapp and Knapp, Red, White, and Blue Paradise, p. 43
69. Speech by Zone Governor Robert Fleming, 14 January 1964, in Balboa Heights, Canal Zone, folder C/DEF Operational Plan for Civil Disturbances Vol. I January 1964 to December 1964, box 4, Declassified General Correspondence, 1945-1979, RG 185, U.S. National Archives. See also Mann to Rusk, telegram, 11 January 1964, folder POL-Political Affairs & Rel. PAN-US 1/1/64, box 2561, Central Files 1964-1966, RG 59, U.S. National Archives; Rusk to Mann, draft, 11 January 1964, folder Panama-Riots Vol. II Part A 1/64-2/64, box 63, Country File, Latin America, National Security File, Lyndon B. Johnson Library. On firings, see The Panama American, "Canal Orders Payne to Leave Despite Examiner's Proposal," 7 May 1964, p. 1
70. and "Racism in CZ Police Plans, Meehan Says," 8 May 1964, 1; "Zone Police Force Seen as a New Issue in Panama," Miami Herald, 26 February 1964
71. Linfors, Fisher, and Geret DePiper, E-mail interviews by author, respectively 2, 3, and 5 May 2001
72. Fisher interview; Diamond, "Personal Memories."
73. Adolfo Ahumada, 9 de enero: testimonio y significado (Panama, 1999), p. 13
74. Meeting of Panama Review Group, 7 April 1964, folder Panama Review Group Meetings (Extra Copies), box 4, Lot 67D467, Records Relating to Panama, 1959-1965, Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, RG 59, U.S. National Archives; Gordon Chase letter to McGeorge Bundy, national security adviser, 10 April 1964, Crises in Panama and the Dominican Republic: National Security Files and NSC Histories, 1963-1969 (Frederick, Md.: UPA, 1982) 3: 0025
75. "Panama Withdraws 'Hate-U.S.' Text," Miami Herald, 11 June 1964
76. "Sigue el rollo del texto," 105 El Día, 10 June 1964
77. "Panama Still Using Anti-U.S. Texts," Miami Herald, 23 August 1964