Something to talk about: Modernism, discourse, style

Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians

Volumn 64, Issue 2, 2005, Pages

  Goldhagen, Sarah Williams ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 60950110696     PISSN: 00379808     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/25068142     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. I have chosen to use the term "modernism" while acknowledging that - at least in reference to the architects of the interwar period, 1918-39 - it is not the word that progressive or avant-garde architects would have embraced. Rather, these architects described themselves as practicing architecture that was "modern," "new," "rational," and so on - in German-speaking countries, one phrase often used was simply "neues Bauen." For a more extensive discussion of nomenclature, see Rosemarie Haag Bletter's introduction to Adolf Behne, The Modern Functional Building (Santa Monica, 1996), 1-4
2. Despite the probable protestations of at least some of the historical subjects under discussion here, I believe mere are many good reasons to, in this instance, violate the probable positions of the historical actors themselves. The term "modernism," as Bletter notes, indicates the historicity of this movement, surely something few contemporary historians or theorists would wish to deny. "Modernism" furthermore helpfully indicates the place of the movement in architecture within the more general history of twentieth-century culture, since "modernism" is generally used to describe contemporaneous, and at least partly analogous, movements in art, music, literature, dance, and so on. See, for example, Daniel Albright, Untwisting the Serpent: Modernism in Music, Literature, and Other Arts (Urbana, 1986)
3. T. J. Clark, Farewell to an Idea: Episodes from a History of Modernism (New Haven, 1999)
4. Charles Harrison, Modernism (New York, 1997)
5. Michael Levenson, The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (New York, 1999)
6. Bernard Smith, Modernisms History (New Haven, 1999)
7. and Marianne Thormählen, ed., Rethinking Modernism (New York, 2003). Finally, the term "modernism" indicates that the progressive and avant-garde architects under discussion shared a common enterprise even as they acknowledged and often battled over the many and profound differences in their ideas and practices
8. Perhaps inadvertently, Reyner Banham, in his conclusion to Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (London, 1960), set off early discussions of modernism's relationship to style by polemically trying to narrow the definition of modernist practice to one that is genuinely functionalist and that truly integrated new technologies into its forms. Early attempts to grapple with modernism and simultaneously loosen it from a certain set of formal practices came from responses to and reviews of Banham's book
9. These include Stanford Anderson, "Architecture and Tradition that Isn't 'Trad, Dad,'" in Marcus Whiffen, ed., The History, Theory, and Criticism of Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1965)
10. Alan Colquhoun, "The Modern Movement in Architecture" (1962), repr. in Colquhoun, Essays in Architectural Criticism: Modern Architecture and Historical Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 21-25
11. and William Jordy, "The Symbolic Essence of Modern European Architecture of the Twenties and Its Continuing Influence," in JSAH 22 (Oct. 1963), 177-87
12. Historians and theorists continued to expand on these early critiques; in subsequent decades, among the most prominent have been Stanford Anderson, "The Fiction of Function," Assemblage 2 (Feb. 1986), 19-31
13. Giorgio Ciucci, "Il mito movimento moderno e le vicende dei CIAM," Casabella 44 (Nov.-Dec. 1980), 28-35, 118
14. Neil Levine, "Wright and His/story," in Levine, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (Princeton, 1996), 419-34
15. and Richard Pommer, "Mies van der Rohe and the Political Ideology of the Modern Movement in Architecture," in Franz Schulze, ed., Mies van der Rohe: Critical Essays (New York, 1989), 96-145
16. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1970), 23
17. Kuhn, Scientific Revolutions, 10, states that paradigms "define legitimate problems and methods of a field for succeeding generations of practitioners." This ongoing proclivity to think "modernist architecture" and see images of Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye or Mies's Seagram Building was recently remarked on by Werner Oechslin: "A hundred years later," he writes, "we still crave the comfort of cohesive, conclusive retrospective judgments of the 'style' of modern architecture!"
18. Oechslin, "A Cultural History of Modern Architecture-2: 'Modern Architecture and the Pitfalls of Codification: The Aesthetic View,'" Architecture + Urbanism 237 (June 1990), 29-38
19. See also Oechslin, "A Cultural History of Modern Architecture-1: The 'Modern': Historical Event versus Demand," Architecture + Urbanism 235 (Apr. 1990), 50-64
20. The term "discourse" has been used by critics and theorists of post-modernism to mean a set of linguistically generated representations that attempt to depict (and therefore constrain and artificially fix) an ever-shifting, unknowable empirical reality. See Michel Foucault, "The Discourse on Language," in Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language (New York, 1972), 215-37
21. Lilie Chouliaraki and Norman Fairclough, Discourse in Late Modernity: Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis (Edinburgh, 1999)
22. and Stuart Hall et al., eds., Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Societies (London, 1995), 201-5
23. I am not using the concept of discourse in a poststructuralist sense of the term; however, I do accept Foucault's contention that discourse is sustained largely through social institutions, such as the academy (Foucault, "Discourse on Language," 227. Rather, I am drawing primarily from Jürgen Habermas's account, in which speech acts are regarded by the community of its recipients as intrinsically hypothetical assertions submitted to critical analysis and response - "I submit my maxim to all others for purposes of discursively testing its claim to universality" - to, in his words, "the unforced force of the better argument."
24. Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), 305
25. see also Habermas, Philosophical Discourse, 40, 295
26. and Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. II: A Critique of Functionalist Reason (Boston, 1987), 149-50. In this model of discourse, participants begin with the presupposition that consensus could ideally be reached; however, a discourse need not ever arrive at a consensus to qualify
27. On communicative reason, see Habermas, Theory of Communicative Action, II, 1-111
28. Thomas McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 291-333
29. and Simone Chambers, "Discourses and Democratic Practices," in Stephen K. White, The Cambridge Companion to Habermas (New York, 1995), 233-59
30. Beatriz Colomina, Privacy and Publicity: Modern Architecture and Mass Media (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), passim. She asserts that "the International Style was a myth sustained by the strategic deployment of mass culture and advertising techniques" (211)
31. See also Mark Wigley, White Walls, Designer Dresses: The Fashioning of Modern Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 156-225
32. and Werner Oechslin, "A Cultural History of Modern Architecture-3: "The 'Picture': The (Superficial) Consensus of Modern Architecture?" Architecture + Urbanism 245 (Feb. 1991), 28-39
33. For a more comprehensive discussion of many of modernism's principal theorists, see Panayotis Tournikiotis, The Historiography of Modern Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1999)
34. See Claire Zimmerman, "Mies van der Rohe's Photographic Architecture," Journal of Architecture 9 (fall 2004), 331-54
35. For discussions of Wölfflin's influence, see Bletter, introduction to Behne, Modern Functional Building, 4
36. Detlef Mertins, introduction to Behrendt, Victory, 32
37. Sokratis Georgiadis, introduction to Giedion, Building in France, 2
38. and Georgiadis, Sigfried Giedion: An Intellectual Biography (Edinburgh, 1993)
39. Johnson and Hitchcock, both Americans, were trained in the equally stylistically focused art-historical tradition of connoisseurship, established by Bernard Berenson: see Franz Schulze, Philip Johnson: Life and Work (New York, 1994), 33-49
40. and Sybil Gordon Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and the Intellectual Origins of the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), which has a good chapter on Hitchcock, Johnson, and Barr's debt to Paul Sachs and the art history department at Harvard, 18-85
41. On Hitchcock, see also Paolo Scrivano, Storia di un'idea di architettura moderna. Henry-Russell Hitchcock e l'international style (Milan, 2001)
42. on Pevsner, see Michela Rosso, La storia utile. Patrimonio e modernità di John Summerson e Nikolaus Pevsner, Londra, 1928-1955 (Turin, 2001)
43. Tournikiotis, Historiography, contains intellectual biographies of many of these figures
44. see also Elizabeth A. T. Smith, "Re-examining Architecture and Its History at the End of the Century," in Russell Ferguson, ed., At the End of the Century: One Hundred Years of Architecture (Los Angeles, 1998), 22-99
45. For a synopsis of Wölfflin's debt to Hegel, see E. H. Gombrich, "Norm and Form: The Stylistic Categories of Art History and Their Origins in Renaissance Ideals," in Norm and Form: Studies in the Art of the Renaissance I (Chicago, 1966), 81-98
46. see also Gombrich, "Style," in Donald Preziosi, ed., The Art of Art History: A Critical Anthology (New York, 1998), 150-63
47. On style, its conceptual importance to the art historian, and the implied relationship of form to content, see Gombrich, "Norm and Form"; James Ackerman, "Style," in Ackerman, Distance Points: Essays in Theory and Renaissance Art and Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 3-22
48. Meyer Schapiro, "Style," in Preziosi, Art of Art History, 143-49
49. and David Summers, " 'Form,' Nineteenth-Century Metaphysics, and the Problem of Art Historical Description," in Preziosi, Art of Art History, 127-42
50. Wölfflin, Classic Art: An Introduction to the Italian Renaissance (Ithaca, 1982), 207-88
51. See also the excellent discussion of Wölfflin in Michael Podro, The Critical Historians of Art (New Haven, 1982), 101-20
52. For later attempts to theorize the notion of autonomy in art history, see Henri Focillon, The Life of Forms in Art (1934; New York, 1989)
53. and George Kubler, The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things (New Haven, 1962)
54. The art-historical notion of autonomy is quite different from that employed by contemporary architectural theorists and historians who, under the influence of Manfredo Tafuri and Theodor Adorno, envision autonomy as a deliberately socio-critical stance available to the architect-agent: see, for example, K. Michael Hays, Modernism and the Posthumanist Subject: The Architecture of Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Hilberseimer (Cambridge, Mass., 1992)
55. Hays, "Odysseus and the Oarsmen, or, Mies' Abstraction Once Again," in Detlef Mertins, The Presence of Mies (New York, 1994), 235-48
56. Mertins, "Architectures of Becoming: Mies van der Rohe and the Avant Garde," in Barry Bergdoll and Terence Riley, eds., Mies in Berlin (New York, 2001), 106-33
57. as well as many of the essays in Joan Ockman, ed., Architecture/ Criticism/Ideology (New York, 1985)
58. and R. E. Somol, ed., Autonomy and Ideology: Positioning an Avant-Garde in America (New York, 1997)
59. Francesco Passanti, "Architecture: Proportions, Classicism and Other Issues," in Stanislaus von Moos and Arthur Rüegg, eds., Le Corbusier before Le Corbusier (New Haven and London, 2002), 68-97, 287-94
60. Barry Bergdoll, "The Nature of Mies' Space," in Bergdoll and Riley, Mies in Berlin, 66-105
61. Kurt Lustenberger, "Modern Is Always the Sparing: On Three Rural Buildings by Adolf Loos," Daidalos 32 (June 1989), 52-59
62. Levine, Frank Lloyd Wright, 149-66 (see n. 2)
63. Ed Taverne and Dolf Broekhuizen, J. J. P. Oud's Shell Building: Design and Reception (Rotterdam, 1995)
64. Levine is one exception; see his "Wright and His/story," Frank Lloyd Wright, 419-34
65. Colomina, Privacy and Publicity
66. Wigley, White Walls
67. Hays, Posthumanist Subject
68. Hilde Heynen, Architecture and Modernity: A Critique (Cambridge, Mass., 1999)
69. Mertins, The Presence of Mies
70. Mertins, "Transparencies Yet to Come: Sigfried Giedion and the Prehistory of Architectural Modernity" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1996)
71. and Somol, Autonomy and Ideology. Even in these theoretically advanced studies, formal criteria continue to set the terms of debate
72. For examples, see Anthony Vidler's "Space, Time, and Movement," in Ferguson, One Hundred Years, 100-25
73. On Asplund, see Fabio Galli, Tallum: Gunnar Asplund and Sigurd Lewerentz's Woodland Cemetery in Stockholm (Stockholm, 1996)
74. Caroline Constant, The Woodland Cemetery: Toward a Spiritual Landscape (Stockholm, 1994)
75. and Erik Gunnar Asplund, Erik Gunnar Asplund (London, 1988)
76. On Scharoun, see Peter Blundell-Jones, Hans Scharoun (London, 1995)
77. and Jörg C. Kirschenmann and Eberhard Syring, Hans Scharoun: Die Forderung des Unvollendeten (Stuttgart, 1993)
78. On Häring, see Peter Blundell-Jones, Hugo Häring: The Organic versus the Geometric (Stuttgart, 1999)
79. On Aalto, see Winfried Nerdinger, ed., Alvar Aalto: Toward a Human Modernism (New York, 1999)
80. Peter Reed, ed., Alvar Aalto: Between Humanism and Materialism (New York, 1998)
81. and Eeva-Liisa Pelkonen, "Geopolitics of Architecture: Alvar Aalto and His Milieus, 1920-1960" (book manuscript)
82. The phrase "other tradition" is Colin St. John Wilson's: see his The Other Tradition in Modern Architecture: The Uncompleted Project (London, 1995); it is also used by Blundell-Jones and appears in numerous calls for papers to conferences (SAH, ACSA, etc.)
83. Bruno Zevi, Towards an Organic Architecture (London, 1950)
84. Kenneth Frampton, "Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance," in Hal Foster, ed., The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture (Port Townsend, Wash., 1983), 16-30
85. On the ideological differences among various members of CIAM, see Ciucci, "Il mito" (see n. 2); and Eric Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960 (Cambridge, Mass., 2000)
86. On the example of Oud, see Ed Taverne, Martin de Vletter, and Cor Wagenaar, J. J. P. Oud: Poetic Functionalist - The Complete Works, 1890-1963 (Rotterdam, 2001)
87. On the example of Schindler, see Judith Scheine, R. M. Schindler (London, 2001)
88. and Elizabeth A. T. Smith and Michael Darling, eds., The Architecture of R. M. Schindler (Los Angeles, 2001)
89. Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, 3rd ed. (London, 1992)
90. St. John Wilson, Other Tradition, 102-21
91. On Gray, see Caroline Constant, Eileen Gray (London, 2000)
92. For a discussion of the difficulty of articulating commonalities underlying apparently different phenomena - and of the analytical necessity of doing so - see Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 258-59
93. An excellent exposition of Bourdieu, and a proposal on how to apply his ideas to architecture (which differs somewhat from the ideas presented here), is Hélène Lipstadt, "Can 'Art Professions' Be Bourdieuian Fields of Cultural Production? The Case of the Architecture Competition," Cultural Studies 17 (2003), 390-418
94. The standard texts on modern architecture since 1970 have been Leonardo Benevolo, History of Modern Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971)
95. Tim Benton with Charlotte Benton and Dennis Sharp, "History of Architecture and Design 1890-1939," course materials offered and published by the Open University (London, 1975)
96. Alan Colquhoun, Modern Architecture (Oxford, 2002)
97. William J. R. Curtis, Modern Architecture since 1900, 3rd ed. (London, 1996)
98. Frampton, Modern Architecture
99. Richard Weston, Modernism (London, 1996)
100. and Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco dal Co, Modern Architecture (New York, 1986)
101. The canonical texts outlining the stylistic properties of postmodernism are, among others, Fredric Jameson, The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1983-1998 (New York, 1998), esp. 1-20
102. the many editions of Charles Jencks, The Language of Post-modern Architecture, 1st ed. (London, 1977)
103. and Paolo Portoghesi, After Modern Architecture (New York, 1982)
104. See also Diane Ghirardo, Architecture after Modernism (New York, 1996)
105. For a discussion of the narrative compulsion in historical writing, see Hayden White, The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore, 1987)
106. For a discussion of this phenomenon in literature, see Thormählen, Rethinking Modernism, 4 (see n. 1): "Postmodernism is now passing into history, which is not to say that it will disappear but that what significance it possesses will not be that of a paradigm which people feel obliged to position themselves in relation to. As academics grapple with the consequences of that shift, a skeptical look at the word itself, both with and without the post-, should be useful. For one thing, one may wonder whether modernism will in some sense survive its successor."
107. For a convincing account of the revolutionary nature of architectural practices of the early twentieth century, see Jordy, "Symbolic Essence," 177-82 (see n. 2)
108. Ackerman, "Style," 4 (see n. 13); Gombrich, "Norm and Form," 82 (see n. 12)
109. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought (New York, 1999), 27-28. So why have art historians long since moved beyond characterizing modernism in art in stylistic or formal terms? It is beyond the scope of this essay to address this complex question adequately. Surely the most obvious reason, however, is that art historians work with more rarefied objects, which are housed in institutions patronized mainly by the cultural elite, such as museums. Architecture and industrial design, by contrast, command a larger audience by virtue of their presence in the urban landscape. Especially in the postwar years, the techno-rationalist strain of modernism in architecture became ubiquitous in the vernacular landscape, which surely exacerbated the popular and scholarly tendency to conflate the techno-rationalist strain of modernism with modernism as a whole
110. Lakoff and Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, 27. 35. Ibid
111. For accounts of intentions and their role in artistic and architectural production, all of which have informed this section but which differ substantially from the account offered here, see Christian Norberg-Schulz, Intentions in Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1965)
112. Michael Baxandall, Patterns of Intention: On the Historical Explanation of Pictures (New Haven, 1985)
113. and David Summers, "Intention in the History of Art," New Literary History 17 (winter 1986), 305-21
114. Some examples in addition to those discussed below are Sarah Williams Goldhagen, Louis Kahn's Situated Modernism (New Haven, 2001)
115. Kathleen James, Erich Mendelsohn and the Architecture of German Modernism (New York, 1997)
116. Mertins, "Architectures of Becoming," 106-33 (see n. 14)
117. Robin Evans, "Mies van der Rohe's Paradoxical Symmetries," AA Files 19 (spring 1990), 56-68
118. and K. Michael Hays, "Critical Architecture: Between Culture and Form," Perspecta 21 (1984), 14-29
119. Mertins, "Architectures of Becoming," 131
120. Evans, "Paradoxical Symmetries," 67
121. Hays, "Critical Architecture," 18-19
122. On Habermas's notion of social action (which originates in the writings of Max Weber), see McCarthy, Habermas, 140-47 (see n. 7)
123. and Jürgen Habermas, Zur Logik der Sozialwissenschaften (Frankfurt, 1970), 73-145
124. For a discussion of the ethical underpinnings of early modernist discourse (from a very different point of view- than that presented here), see David Watkin, Morality in Architecture, Revisited (Chicago, 2001)
125. Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture (London, 1927), 17
126. Taut, Modern Architecture, 9 (see n. 9)
127. See, for example, Reinhold Martin, The Organizational Complex: Architecture, Media, and Corporate Space (Cambridge, Mass., 2003)
128. Frederic Schwartz, The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass Culture before the First World War (New Haven, 1996)
129. Anthony Vidler, Claude-Nicholas Ledoux: Architecture and Social Reform at the End of the Ancien Régime (Cambridge, Mass., 1990)
130. and esp. Manfredo Tafuri, Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), as well as his other writings on modern architecture
131. Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York, 1946), 152-53. Essentially, I suggest that modernist architects conceived of their professional practice as a vocation in the Weberian sense of the term: Weber writes that science, when pursued as a vocation, is not just the pursuit of concrete knowledge but an attempt to answer Leo Tolstoy's question, "What shall we do, and how shall we arrange our lives?" The true scientist, Weber writes, must be able to "give himself an account of the ultimate meaning of his own conduct."
132. Bourdieu, Distinction, 50-53 (see n. 26)
133. Donald Preziosi, Rethinking Art History: Meditations on a Coy Science (New Haven, 1989), 147
134. See Passanti, "Architecture" (see n. 16)
135. See Anderson, "Fiction of Function" (see n. 2)
136. Banham, Theory and Design (see n. 2)
137. Colquhoun, "Modern Movement" (see n. 2)
138. and Colin Rowe, "The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa," in Rowe, The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa and Other Essays (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 1-28
139. Ciucci, "Il mito" (see n. 2)
140. Wolf Tegethoff, Mies van der Rohe: The Villas and Country Houses (Cambridge, Mass., 1985)
141. Fritz Neumeyer, The Artless Word: Mies van der Rohe on the Building Art (Cambridge, Mass., 1991)
142. Evans, "Paradoxical Symmetries" (see n. 40)
143. and Esther da Costa Meyer, The Work of Antionio Sant'Elia: Retreat into the Future (New Haven, 1995)
144. and, implicitly, Colquhoun, Modern Architecture (see n. 2)
145. Alberto Perez-Gomez, Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Cambridge, Mass., 1983)
146. Vidler, "Space, Time, and Movement," 100-25 (see n. 18)
147. These characterizations, based partly on the argument initially advanced by Peter Bürger in Theory of the Avant-Garde (Minneapolis, 1982), are clearly laid out in Hays, Posthumanist Subject, 122 ff. (see n. 14)
148. On the institutionalized nature of discourse, see Jürgen Habermas, Theory and Practice (Boston, 1973)
149. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice (Stanford, 1990)
150. and Bourdieu, In Other Words: Essays Toward a Reflexive Sociology (Stanford, 1987), 123-49
151. See Joan Ockman and Edward Eigen, eds., Architecture Culture 1943-1968: A Documentary Anthology (New York, 1993)
152. and Sarah Williams Goldhagen and Réjean Legault, eds., Anxious Modernisms: Experimentation in Postwar Architectural Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 2000)
153. Although cast as accounts of postmodernism, the material presented in K. Michael Hays, ed., Architecture Theory since 1968 (Cambridge, Mass., 1998)
154. and Kate Nesbit, ed., Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture (New York, 1996), is worth reconsidering from the point of view presented here
155. Alfred Barr, Cubism and Abstract Art (New York, 1937), 156
156. For example, see Alberto Sartoris's correspondence on whether to title his book the elements of "rational" or "functionar architecture, in Alberto Sartoris. La concepción poética de la arquitectura, 1901-1998 (Valencia, 2000), 138-42
157. See also Bletter, introduction to Behne, Modern Functional Building, 30-31 (see n. 1)
158. and Bourdieu, Distinction, 164, 170
159. Other examples from the 1920s might be the discussions about "type" or "form." See Adrian Forty•, Words and Buildings: A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture (New York, 2000), 161-68, 307. From the postwar years, debates on monumentality, on the value of "history," and on typology serve as ready examples
160. Stanford Anderson, "Sachlichkeit and Modernity, or Realist Architecture," in Harry Mallgrave, ed., Otto Wagner: Reflections on the Raiment of Modernity (Santa Monica, 1993), 322-60
161. Christina Lodder, "VKhUTEMAS and the Bauhaus," repr. in Lodder, Constructive Strands in Russian Art 1914-1931 (London, 2005)
162. Lipstadt, "'Art Professions,'" 400 (see n. 26)
163. On contemporary art-historical practices, see Preziosi, Rethinking Art History (see n. 53)
164. his Art of Art History (see n. 12)
165. and Robert S. Nelson and Richard Schiff, Critical Terms for Art History (Chicago, 1996)
166. See, for example, Clark, Farrwell to an Idea
167. Charles Harrison, Modernism
168. and Smith, Modernism's History (see n. 1 for all)
169. For a discussion of the relationship of non-modernism and anti-modernism to modernism, see my "Coda: Reconceptualizing the Modern," in Goldhagen and Legault, Anxious Modernisms, 308-9 (see n. 69)
170. Although "modernity" is sometimes used as a wooly, difficult-to-define term, it is in fact an explicable phenomenon on which much empirical information, analysis, and insight is readily available. Among many other sources, see Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford, 1990)
171. Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford, 1991)
172. and Hall, Modernity (see n. 7)
173. See Goldhagen and Legault, introduction to Anxious Modernisms, 11-23
174. I first suggested a dimensional analysis (the term is drawn from the social sciences) of modernism in my "Coda," 301-23, where I proposed three structuring dimensions. In my current project, "Rethinking Modernism in Architecture," I have further developed these ideas, for example by incor-porating a fourth dimension, which theorizes the formal language of modernism. For discussions of the coda, see Hilde Heynen, "Coda: Engaging Modernism," in Heynen and Hubert-Jan Henket, eds., Back from Utopia: The Challenge of the Modern Movement (Rotterdam, 2002), 378-98
175. and Iain Boyd White, introduction to his Modernism and the Spirit of the City (New-York, 2003), 26-27
176. For a critique of this approach, see Diane Ghirardo, review of Anxious Modernisms in JSAH 60 (Dec. 2001), 528-30
177. and my response and Ghirardo's reply, JSAH 61 (June 2002), 263
178. For a description of the specific dynamics of a discourse, see Thomas McCarthy, introduction to Habermas, Philosophical Discourse, vii-xvii
179. and McCarthy, "Reflections on Rationalization in the Theory of Communicative Action" in Richard J. Bernstein, ed., Habermas and Modernity (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 326
180. On the distinction between instrumental and theoretical reason, and the relationship between them, see Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. I: Reason and the Rationalization of Society (Boston, 1984), 143-272 (on Weber), 339-402 (on Adorno and Horkheimer)
181. and on communicative reason, Habermas, Communicative Action II, 1-111
182. Jürgen Habermas, "The Normative Content of Modernity," Philosophical Discourse, 336-67