"Citizens of a free people": Popular liberalism and race in nineteenth-century Southwestern Colombia

HAHR - Hispanic American Historical Review

Volumn 84, Issue 2, 2004, Pages

  Sanders, James E ^a  

^a UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 60949984156     PISSN: 00182168     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/00182168-84-2-277     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Rebecca J. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860-1899 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1985)
2. While the popular liberalism of indigenous and mestizo communities has received significant study of late, less attention has been paid to the efforts of blacks and mulattos. See especially Florencia E. Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Post-Colonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995)
3. and Gilbert Joseph and Daniel Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1994)
4. Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1999), 3
5. For Afro-Latin Americans, see George Reid Andrews, Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, forthcoming)
6. Ariete (Cali), 3 Aug. 1850
7. Germán Colmenares, Cali: Terratenientes, mineros y comerciantes, siglo XVIII (Bogotá: Tercer Mundo, 1997)
8. Germán Colmenares, Historia económica y social de Colombia, vol. 2, Popayán, una sociedad esclavista, 1680-1800 (Bogotá: Tercer Mundo, 1997)
9. José Escorcia, Sociedad y economía en el Valle del Cauca, vol. 3, Desarrollo político, social y económico, 1800-1854 (Bogotá: Biblioteca Banco Popular, 1983)
10. and Alonso Valencia Llano, Estado soberano del Cauca: Federalismo y regeneracíon (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1988)
11. For the local geographer, see T. C. Mosquera, Memoria sobre la geografía, física y política de la Nueva Granada (New York: Imprenta de S. W. Benedict, 1852), 96
12. for the 1851 census, see Frank Safford and Marco Palacios, Colombia: Fragmented Land, Divided Society (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002), 261
13. James M. Eder to Secretary of State William H. Seward, Buenaventura, 24 Oct. 1868, in Dispatches from United States Consuls in Buenaventura, Colombia: 1867-1885 (Washington, D.C: National Archives, 1948)
14. Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, "Esclavos y señores en la sociedad colombiana del siglo XVIII," in Ensayos sobre historia social colombiana (Bogotá: Univ. Nacional de Colombia, 1968), 10-13
15. Peter Wade, Blackness and Race Mixture: The Dynamics of Racial Identity in Colombia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1993)
16. Miguel Urrutia M. and Mario Arrubla, eds., Compendio de estadísticas históricas de Colombia (Bogotá: Univ. Nacional de Colombia, 1970), table 8
17. AGN, SR, Fondo Gobernaciones Varias (hereafter cited as FGV), tomo 216, p. 494-500
18. Jorge Castellanos, La abolición de la esclavitud en Popayán, 1832-1852 (Cali: Univ. del Valle, 1980), 86
19. J. N. Nuñez Conto to José H. López, Cali, 26 Jan. 1850, AGN, Sección Academia Colombiana de Historia (hereafter cited as SACH), Fondo José Hilario López (hereafter cited as FJHL), caja 2, carpeta 1, p. 70
20. For struggles immediately after the wars of independence, see Francisco Zuluaga Ramírez, Guerrilla y sociedad en el Patía: Una relación entre clientelismo político y la insurgencia social (Cali: Univ. del Valle, 1993)
21. Marixa Lasso, "Race and Republicanism in the Age of Revolution, Cartagena, 1795-1831" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Florida, 2002)
22. Aline Helg, "The Limits of Equality: Free People of Colour and Slaves during the First Independence of Cartagena, Colombia, 1810-15," Slavery and Abolition 20 (Aug. 1999): 1-30
23. See Escorcia, Sociedad y economía, 82-84
24. Castellanos, La abolición, 62
25. Rebecca Earle, "The War of the Supremes: Border Conflict, Religious Crusade, or Simply Politics by Other Means?" in Rumours of Wars: Civil Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Latin America, ed. Rebecca Earle (London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 2000), 119-34
26. and Fernán E. González González, Para leer la política: Ensayos de historia política colombiana (Bogotá: Cinep, 1997), 2:83-161
27. J. León Helguera, "Antecedentes sociales de la revolución de 1851 en el sur de Colombia (1848-1849)," Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 5 (1970): 61
28. Marco Palacios, El café en Colombia, 1850-1970: Una historia económica, social y política, 2nd ed. (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1983), 29
29. M. M. Alaix to José H. López, Popayán, 26 Nov. 1850, AGN, SACH, FJHL, caja 4, carpeta 19, p. 1683
30. see also Annick Lempérière, "¿Nación moderna o república baroca? México, 1823-1857," in Imaginar la nación, ed. François-Xavier Guerra and Mónica Quijada (Münster: Lit, 1994)
31. Margarita R. Pacheco G., La fiesta liberal en, Cali (Cali: Ediciones Univ. del Valle, 1992), 106-11
32. For a description of another public ceremony, see Ramón Mercado, "Programa para el recibimiento del Benemérito Jeneral Lopez en esta Ciudad á su llegada á ella y al paso del Cauca" [1851], Archivo Histórico Municipal de Cali, Archivo del Concejo Municipal (hereafter cited as AHMC), tomo 114, p. 743
33. Ramón Mercado, Narciso Riascos, Manuel Antonio Vernaza et al., "Programa Solemnidad del 2 de febrero de 1851 por la manumisión de 46 esclavos," AHMC, tomo 114, p. 478
34. The juntas had existed since the 1820s but had managed to free very few slaves over the subsequent decades. Harold A. Bierck Jr., "The Struggle for Abolition in Gran Colombia," Hispanic American Historical Review 33 (Aug. 1953): 377, 379-85
35. Marixa Lasso notes that in the 1820s, manumission ceremonies were designed to inculcate a sense of Colombian citizenship; I argue that by the 1850s, Liberals hoped to foster a sense of citizenship as well as fealty to the party Marixa Lasso, "The Harmony of War: Official Discourses, Race War Rumors, and Grievances" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Chicago, 2003)
36. Ramón M. Orejuela to Tomás C. de Mosquera, Hacienda Rosalía, 3 Feb. 1853, ACC, SM, doc. 28,960
37. Liberals were attempting to create a new political culture, as described by Lynn Hunt for revolutionary France; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1984)
38. See also Eduardo Posada-Carbó, "New Granada and the European Revolutions of 1848," in The European Revolutions of 1848 and the Americas, ed. Guy P. C. Thomson (London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 2002), 217-40
39. For membership numbers of the Democratic Society see El Sentimiento Democrático (Cali), 29 Nov. and 6 Dec. 1849
40. For the Bogotá clubs, see David Sowell, The Early Colombian Labor Movement: Artisans and Politics in Bogotá, 1832-1919 (Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press, 1992)
41. and Francisco Gutiérrez Sanín, Curso y discurso del movimiento plebeyo, 1849-1854 (Bogotá: Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Relaciones Internacionales; El Ancora, 1995)
42. Mercado, Memorias, xxxi. Conservatives agreed with Mercado, describing the Democratic Society's members as from the "most abject, ignorant, and miserable class"
43. Ariete, 23 Mar. 1850
44. Julio Arboleda, "El Misóforo, Número Noveno - Popayán 27 de noviembre de 1850," in Prosa de Julio Arboleda: Jurídca, política, heterodoxa y literaria (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1984), 347-348
45. Ariete, 3 Aug. 1850
46. Manuel José González to Mariano Ospina, Cali, 21 Dec. 1859, BN, FM, tomo 210, p. 127
47. El Sentimiento Democrático, 31 May 1849
48. El Sentimiento Democrático, 3 May, 14 June, and 21 June 1849
49. Bosch, Reseña histórica, 27, 48-51
50. M. E. Pedrosa, Alcance a la reseña histórica (Cali: Imprenta de Velasco, 1857), 5
51. Manuel María Ayala, President of the Democratic Society to the Provincial Governor, Popayán, 5 Mar. 1850, ACC, Archivo Muerto (hereafter cited as AM), paquete 49, leg. 76
52. Ramón Bermudes and 13 partners to Senators and Representatives (national), Cali, 15 Apr. 1853, AC, 1853, Senado, Informes de Comisiones VI, p. 169
53. The club particularly complained about how the liquor monopoly hurt "our women"; El Sentimiento Democrático, 12 July 1849
54. David Bushnell, The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1993), 104-5
55. José Hilario López, Mensaje del Presidente de la Nueva Granada al Congreso Constitucional de 1852 (Bogotá: Imprenta del Neo-Granadino, 1852), 1
56. El Sentimiento Democrático, 13 Sept. 1849
57. El Sentimiento Democrático, 30 Aug. 1849
58. Omar Díaz Aparicio, Los ejidos: Desde Alfonso el Sabio en Castilla hasta nuestros días en Cali (Cali: Imprenta Departamental del Valle, 1992), 58
59. Gustavo Espinosa Jaramillo, La saga de los ejidos: Crónica legal - siglos XIII al XX (Cali: Univ. Santiago de Cali, 1997), 232-36
60. Luis Fernando López Garavito, Historia de la hacienda y el tesoro en Colombia, 1821-1900 (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1992), 98
61. El Pensamiento Popular (Cali), 22 July 1852
62. El Clamor Nacional (Popayán), 22 Mar. 1851
63. José Hilario López, "Mensaje del Presidente de la Nueva Granada al Congreso Constitucional de 1851," Bogotá, 1 Mar. 1851, AC, 1851, Cámara, Memorias de los Secretarios del Despacho Ejecutivo IV, 97
64. James Sanders, "Belonging to the Great Granadan Family: Partisan Struggle and the Construction of Indigenous Identity and Politics in Southwestern Colombia, 1849-1890," in Race and Nation in Modern Latin America, ed. Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2003), 56-86
65. La Opinión (Cali), 1 Dec. 1848
66. Ariete, 27 Apr. 1850
67. Mercado, Memorias, lviii; El Clamor Nacional, 8 Feb. 1851
68. Bosch, Reseña histórica, 35
69. Pacheco, La fiesta liberal en, Cali, 141-61
70. La Sociedad Democrática de Cali, Mentir con descaro (Cali: Imprenta de Velasco, 1851), 1
71. Mercado, Memorias, lv-lvii, lxvii
72. Observaciones para servir a la historia de la administracion del 7 de marzo . . . (Bogotá: Imprenta del Neo-Granadino, 1851), 1
73. R. Mercado to Secretary of Government (national), Cali, 24 Jan. 1851, AGN, SR, FGV, tomo 165, p. 799
74. El Ciudadano (Popayán), 3 June and 17 June 1848
75. El Clamor Nacional, 19 Apr. 1851
76. Ariete, 10 Aug. 1850
77. Arboleda, "El Misóforo," 347-48, 358
78. M. M. Alaix, No sin desconfianza en mis propias fuerzas me propongo refutar la carta que el señor Julio Arboleda ha publicado en el numero 9.0 de "El Misóforo" [no title listed, this is first line of the text] (Popayán: no press listed, 1850), 54
79. Mercado, Memorias, xcv
80. José Hilario López, Proclama. El Presidente de la República a sus conciudadanos (Bogotá: Imprenta del Neo-Granadino, 1851)
81. El Pueblo (Popayán), 1 Sept. 1850
82. J. N. Montero to Secretary of Government (national), Barbacoas, 10 May 1852, AGN, SR, FGV, tomo 179, p. 243
83. El Hurón (Popayán), 1 May 1851
84. Manuel A. Tello to Provincial Governor, Quilichao, 27 Apr. 1851, ACC, AM, paquete 50, leg. 50
85. see also Carlos Gómez to Secretary of Government (national), Buga, 20 Apr. 1851, AGN, SR, FGV, tomo 216, p. 491
86. Boletín Democrático, 18 July 1851
87. Anonymous, "Diario de la guerra de 1851," ACC, FA, sig. 988
88. López, Proclama, 1
89. El Cauca (Cali), 19 Nov. 1857
90. José H. López, "Mensaje del Presidente de la Nueva Granada al Congreso Constitucional de 1852," Bogotá, 1 Mar. 1852, AC, 1852, Cámara, Correspondencia Oficial II, p. 132
91. There is an important tension in subaltern studies between finding better ways to access subaltern histories and the recognition of the limits of such scholarship. This question seems most concerned with "private" subaltern consciousness. However, I offer that it is of equal historical import what subalterns actually said and did in the public sphere. See Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, "Can the Subaltern Speak?" in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1988), 271-313
92. José M. Correa to Tomás C. de Mosquera, Roldanillo, 9 Apr. 1859, ACC, SM, doc. 36,291
93. El Demócrata: Organo del Partido Liberal lndependiente (Palmira), 13 Mar. 1879
94. Rafael Prado Concha to Sergio Arboleda, Palmira, 5 Nov. 1871, ACC, FA, sig. 1523
95. Los Principios (Cali), 12 Nov. 1875
96. This may well have been the case in Bogotá, but the implicit suggestion in various works is that a similar explanation holds for all of Colombia. Pacheco, La fiesta liberal en Cali, 170-91
97. Fabio Zambrano, "Algunas formas de sociabilidad en la Nueva Granada, 1780-1860" (unpublished ms.), 164-74
98. Gutiérrez Sanín, Curso y discurso; Hans-Joachim König, En el Camino hacia la nación: Nacionalismo en el proceso de formación del estado y de la nacíon de la Nueva Granada, 1750 a 1856 (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1994), 493-502
99. Safford and Palacios, Colombia, 208-15
100. José M. Cañadas to José Hilario López, Cali, 25 Sept. 1854, AGN, SACH, FJHL, caja 9, carpeta 7, p. 172
101. Safford and Palacios, Colombia, 212-14
102. Alejandro de la Fuente, A Nation for All: Race, Inequality, and Politics in Twentieth-Century Cuba (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2001), 60-66
103. José J. Lemos to Provincial Governor, Silvia, 30 May 1854, ACC, AM, paquete 75, leg. 84
104. La Unión (Popayán), 7 Feb. 1864
105. Hacendados endlessly complained about the lack of discipline of their labor force. See Sergio Arboleda, "Observaciones á la cuenta formada por los Sres. Rafael y Daniel Arboleda," Bogotá, 30 Aug. 1878, ACC, FA, sig. 15, p. 1
106. Sergio Arboleda, "Instrucciones al Señor Trinidad Gómez para el manejo de la hacienda Quintero," Japio, 4 Sept. 1857, ACC, FA, sig. 140, p. 7
107. T. C. de Mosquera to President of the Senate, Popayán, 2 Sept. 1859, ACC, AM, paquete 74, leg. 56
108. Gaceta del Cauca (Popayán), 6 Sept. 1859
109. T. C. de Mosquera, "Mensaje del Gobernador del Estado a la Lejislatura de 1859," Popayán, 11 Aug. 1859, ACC, ,AM, paquete 74, leg. 48
110. Pedro Antonio Martínez Cuellar to Mariano Ospina, Buga, 27 June 1859, BN, FM, libro 210, p. 32
111. José V. López to Mariano Ospina, Cali, 3 June 1859, BN, FM, libro 210, p. 132
112. José M. Chicaíza to Mariano Ospina, Pasto, 7 June 1859, BN, FM, libro 322, p. 374
113. J. M. Bustamente to Mariano Ospina, Cartago, 15 Sept. 1859, BN, FM, libro 210, p. 97
114. "Diario Histórico del Ejército Unido de Antioquia y Cauca," ACC, FA, sig. 63, p. 235
115. Manuel José González to Sergio Arboleda, Cali, 11 Mar. 1862, ACC, FA, sig. 437, p. 1
116. Daniel Mosquera to Provincial Governor, Tambo, 18 Aug. 1861, ACC, AM, paquete 82, leg. 27
117. El Espectador: Dios, Relijion i Libertad (Pasto), 10 Apr. 1862; rough draft of a letter to the national congress, [Sergio Arboleda], [mid-1860s?], ACC, FA, sig. 180, p. 4
118. Gaceta Oficial del Cauca (Popayán), 27 Apr. 1867
119. El Atratense (Quibdó), 9 Sept. and 26 Oct. 1880
120. See also Claudia Leal, "Natural Treasures and Racial Tensions: The Pacific Lowlands of Colombia at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century, 1880-1930" (paper presented at the meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, Dallas, 2003)
121. José Tello to Provincial Governor, Almaguer, 11 Oct. 1853, ACC, AM, paquete 55, leg. 94
122. Pedro José Piedrahíta to T. C. de Mosquera, Cali, 12 Mar. 1859, ACC, SM, doc. 36,922
123. The Afro-Caucanos' political repertoire matched new nineteenth-century repertoires in European social movements; Charles Tilly, "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain, 1758-1834," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 253-80
124. For voting, petitions, boycotts, violence, and demonstrations, see previously cited material. For the strike, see below. For sitting in the galleries, see C. Conto to Aquileo Parra, Popayán, 7 Aug. 1877, Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango, Bogotá, Sala de Manuscritos, ms. 295
125. Bosch, Reseña histõrica, 50
126. Nancy Appelbaum, "Whitening the Region: Caucano Mediation and 'Antioqueño Colonization' in Nineteenth-Century Colombia," Hispanic American Historical Review 79 (Nov. 1999): 636-45
127. Gustavo Arboleda, Diccionario biográfico y genealógico del antiguo Departamento del Cauca (Bogotá: Biblioteca Horizontes, 1962 [1910]), 474
128. Benjamín Núñez to Secretary of Government, Cali, 6 Dec. 1865, ACC, AM, paquete 65, leg. 67
129. see also El Espectador, 2 Oct. [1862]
130. "Culture hero" from John Charles Chasteen, Heroes on Horseback: The Life and Times of the Last Gaucho Caudillos (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1995), 4
131. Patron-client quotation from John Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 4-5
132. See also Hugh M. Hamill, ed., Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1992)
133. For a very nuanced presentation of caudillisino that stresses patron-client bonds, material motivations, emotional ties, but also party identification, see Ariel de la Fuente, Children of Facundo: Caudillo and Gaucho Insurgency during the Argentine State-Formation Process (La Rioja, 1853-1870) (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 2000)
134. Caudillismo may well be the best explanatory guide for certain times and places, but it seems of less utility for understanding nineteenth-century Colombia. For example, Charles Walker notes the limited political campaigning in the Peruvian countryside in his study of caudillismo, compared to the intense political life I found in rural Colombia. Charles F. Walker, Smoldering Ashes: Cuzco and the Creation of Republican Peru, 1780-1840 (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1999). While the caudillo model has been superceded by some scholars working on urban history, it is more accepted for rural areas
135. See Sowell, The Early Colombian Labor Movement. While the caudillo model may limit too severely subaltern agency, focusing on resistance alone may ignore the vast majority of popular political participation
136. For resistance in the Cauca, see Michael T. Taussig, The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1980)
137. For views that emphasize clientelism, see Alvaro Tirado Mejía, Aspectos sociales de las guerras civiles en Colombia (Bogotá: Institute Colombiano de Cultura, 1976), 37-38
138. Bushnell, The Making of Modern Colombia, 94
139. Orlando Fals Borda, Historia doble de la casta, vol. 2 (Bogotá: Carlos Valencia, 1981), 62b-76b, 191
140. For opinions closer to my own, see Malcolm Deas, "Poverty Civil War, and Politics: Ricardo Gaitán Obeso and his Magdalena River Campaign in Colombia, 1885," Nova Americana 2 (1979): 263-303
141. Lynch, Caudillos, 4
142. Uday Singh Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1999)
143. For Colombian liberalism generally, see Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, El pensamiento colombiano en el siglo XIX (Bogotá: Temis, 1964)
144. Gerardo Molina, Las ideas liberales en Colombia, vol. 1, 1849-1914 (Bogotá: Tercer Mundo, 1988)
145. These discourses of republicanism and liberalism acted in the Cauca much the way "myths" of racial democracy and republicanism acted in Cuba to provide possibilities for the mobilization of Afro-Cubans. See Alejandro de la Fuente, "Myths of Racial Democracy: Cuba, 1900-1912," Latin American Research Review 34, no. 3 (1999): 39-73
146. José Tomás del Carmen [written by another] to Governor, Popayán, 16 Mar. 1855, ACC, AM, paquete 60, leg. 60
147. Bautista Feijoo, Jefe Político of Torres Cantón to Governor of the Province, Caloto, 8 Apr. 1854, ACC, AM, paquete 75, leg. 84
148. Years later, a liberal observer noted how a severe famine in the valley had forced those desperate for food to beg by saying "the hated word, my master"; La Voz del Pueblo: Organo de la Sociedad Democrática (Cali), 3 Oct. 1878
149. The focus on military service and voting had the effect of excluding women - who often participated in direct political action - from full membership in popular liberalism and nation formation. For the importance of military service, see Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 37-42
150. Doris Sommer, Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin America (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1991), 23
151. Mercado acknowledged this when he referred to the people who knocked down fences in Cali's ejidos as "citizens." R. Mercado to Secretary of Government, Cali, 24 Jan. 1851, AGN, SR, FGV, tomo 165, p. 799
152. Anonymous, Observaciones para servir a la historia, 1
153. Jorge J. Hoyos to Mariano Ospina, Buenaventura, 25 Mar. 1859, BN, FM, libro 189, p. 363
154. Ariete, 19 Jan. 1850
155. Manuel María [Mosquera] to Tomás [Cipriano Mosquera], Popayán, 15 May 1877, ACC, SM, doc. 57,555
156. Gutiérrez Sanín, Curso y discurso
157. Belisario Zamorano, Bosquejo biográfico del Jeneral David Peña (Cali: Imprenta de Eustaquio Palacios, 1878), 16
158. David Peña, "Proyecto de Lei por lo cual se fomenta la agricultura en el Estado," Popayán, 9 Aug. 1877, ACC, AM, paquete 137, leg. 30
159. Registro Oficial (Organo del Gobierno del Cauca) (Popayán), 30 June 1877
160. B. González to Julián Trujillo, Popayán, 2 Aug. 1877, AGN, Sección Colecciones, Fondo Enrique Ortega Ricaurte, Serie Generales y Civiles, caja 94, carpeta 346, doc. 18,565
161. Report of Ramón Cerón, Popayán, 14 Aug. 1877, ACC, AM, paquete 137, leg. 30
162. For an excellent general overview of this process (and Caucano history in general), see Valencia Llano, Estado soberano del Cauca, 226-282
163. see also Marco Palacios, Entre la legitimidad y la violencia: Columbia, 1875-1994 (Bogotá: Grupo Editorial Norma, 1995), 15-71
164. See Mallon, Peasant and Nation; Guy P. C. Thomson with David G. LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Juan Francisco Lucas and the Puebla Sierra (Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 1999)
165. For twentieth-century relations, see W. John Green, Gaitanismo, Left Liberalism, and Popular Mobilization in Columbia (Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 2003)