Removing the mask of nationality: Unionism, racism, and federal military occupation in North Carolina, 1862-1865

Journal of Southern History

Volumn 71, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 589-620

  Browning, Judkin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 60949743949     PISSN: 00224642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27648821     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. John G. Parke to Ambrose Burnside, March 26, 1862, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (70 vols, in 128; Washington, D.C., 1880-1901), Ser. I, Vol. IX, 278-80; hereinafter cited as Official Records; Undated entry [before April 23, 1862], James Rumley Diary, Levi Woodbury Pigott Collection (North Carolina State Archives, North Carolina Office of Archives and History, Raleigh; hereinafter cited as NCSA). The identification of the diarist as James Rumley, not Levi Pigott, was made in August 2000 and is not reflected in all finding aids. George H. Allen remembered the date incorrectly as March 21 when he wrote his regimental history twenty-five years after the fact
2. The two contemporaneous sources, Parke and Rumley, confirm that Beaufort was occupied on March 25, 1862. George H. Allen, Forty-Six Months with the Fourth R.I. Volunteers, in the War of 1861 to 1865 . . . (Providence, 1887), 101. For their comments on earlier versions of this essay, I wish to thank John C. Inscoe, Thomas G. Dyer, and the anonymous readers for the Journal of Southern History. A version of this essay was presented at the sixty-ninth annual meeting of the Southern Historical Association, where it won the William F. Holmes Award. I would like to thank the panel's commentator, Robert C. Kenzer, chairperson Jane Turner Censer, and the Holmes Award committee for their feedback. The research for this article could not have been accomplished without the help of the Presidential Fellowship and the Dean's Award in Humanities from the University of Georgia, the Archie K. Davis Research Fellowship from the North Caroliniana Society, the J. Carlyle Sitterson Visiting Scholar Grant from the Southern Historical Collection, and the Dissertation Fellowship from the United States Army Center for Military History
3. Edwin M. Stanton to Edward Stanly, May 19, 1862 (Stanly appointment), Official Records, Ser. I, Vol. IX, 396-97
4. For an analysis of the policy of conciliation, see Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1995), chaps. 2-4
5. William C. Harris, With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union (Lexington, Ky., 1997), 8
6. Stephen V. Ash, When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861-1865 (Chapel Hill, 1995), 26
7. and William Blair, Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861-1865 (New York, 1998), 135
8. For an examination of Lincoln's vision and plan of wartime Reconstruction in the South and specifically North Carolina, see Harris, With Charity for All, especially chap. 3
9. In one of the best treatments of Union military policy in occupied areas, Mark Grimsley argues that conciliation died with Union defeats outside Richmond in 1862. Union authorities then moved toward a "pragmatic" policy, between conciliation and hard war. Grimsley, Hard Hand of War, 3, 47-119
10. For more on the shift in Union policy away from conciliation, see also Ash, When the Yankees Came, 50-53
11. Michael Fellman, Citizen Sherman: A Life of William Tecumseh Sherman (New York, 1995), chap. 9
12. and Mark Grimsley, "Conciliation and Its Failure, 1861-1862," Civil War History, 39 (December 1993), 317-35
13. Parson Brownlow quoted in John C. Inscoe, "Introduction," in John C. Inscoe and Robert C. Kenzer, eds., Enemies of the Country: New Perspectives on Unionists in the Civil War South (Athens, Ga., 2001), 8
14. Robert Tracy McKenzie, "Prudent Silence and Strict Neutrality: The Parameters of Unionism in Parson Brownlow's Knoxville, 1860-1863," in Inscoe and Kenzer, eds., Enemies of the Country, 74
15. The first to identify the different degrees of dissent against the Confederacy -asserting a distinction between passive disaffection and active Unionist disloyalty - was Georgia Lee Tatum, Disloyalty in the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, 1934)
16. Other works on the various natures of Unionism include Carl N. Degler, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1974)
17. Richard N. Current, Lincoln's Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy (Boston, 1992)
18. and Inscoe and Kenzer, eds., Enemies of the Country. Many of the most incisive examinations of the complexity of Unionism have been set in a community or regional context
19. See especially Thomas G. Dyer, Secret Yankees: The Union Circle in Confederate Atlanta (Baltimore, 1999)
20. Wayne K. Durrill, War of Another Kind: A Southern Community in the Great Rebellion (New York, 1990)
21. William Warren Rogers Jr., Confederate Home Front: Montgomery during the Civil War (Tuscaloosa, 1999), especially chap. 7
22. and Margaret M. Storey, Loyalty and Loss: Alabama's Unionists in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Baton Rouge, 2004)
23. Appalachia is a particularly fruitful region for recent works on Unionism; see Martin Crawford, Ashe County's Civil War: Community and Society in the Appalachian South (Charlottesville, 2001)
24. John C. Inscoe and Gordon B. McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia: Western North Carolina in the Civil War (Chapel Hill, 2000), chap. 4
25. and Phillip Shaw Paludan, Victims: A True Story of the Civil War (Knoxville, 1981)
26. "Beaufort Long Ago was Quiet and Good," Beaufort News, November 29, 1923 (first quotation)
27. James Manney to John M. Morehead, December 8, 1847, James Manney Letter Book #4533 (Southern Historical Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; hereinafter cited as SHC) (cotton factory); Undated letter to the editor (typescript), Unprocessed material, Box 2, F. C. Salisbury Collection, NCSA (second quotation)
28. William Geffrey to David S. Reid, August 30, 1858, David S. Reid Papers, NCSA (elite vacation spot)
29. William Woods Holden to Miss L. H. Holden, August 6, 1858, in Horace W. Raper and Thornton W. Mitchell, eds., The Papers of William Woods Holden. Vol. I: 1841-1868 (Raleigh, 2000), 95 (elite vacation spot)
30. James Manney to George E. Badger, February 7, 1849 (first quotation)
31. James Manney to Editors of the Republic [November 1849] (second and third quotations)
32. James Manney to Zachary Taylor, February 18, 1850 (fourth quotation), all in Manney Letter Book
33. David S. Cecelski, The Waterman's Song: Slavery and Freedom in Maritime North Carolina (Chapel Hill, 2001), xvi, 141-51
34. For a lucid exploration of slave patrols, one of the primary mechanisms for regulating the black population, see Sally E. Hadden, Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), especially chaps. 4-5
35. Victor B. Howard, "John Brown's Raid at Harpers Ferry and the Sectional Crisis in North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review, 55 (October 1978), 398-402, 415 (first quotation)
36. Nathan H. Street, Peter G. Evans, and John N. Washington to John W. Ellis, January 9 [1860], in Noble J. Tolbert, ed., The Papers of John Willis Ellis (2 vols.; Raleigh, 1964), II, 345 (call for better arms)
37. W. B. Wadsworth to John W. Ellis, December 12, 1860 (secessionist rallies), Henry B. Clarke to John W. Ellis, March 20, 1860 (cavalry companies), both in Governor's Papers, John Willis Ellis, NCSA
38. Governor's Papers, John Willis Ellis, NCSA (Carteret vote count)
39. John W. Ellis to William H. Gist, October 19, 1860, in Tolbert, ed., Papers of John Willis Ellis, II, 469-70 (second quotation). The final vote for Carteret was 415 yeas to 394 nays, while Craven voted 891 yeas to 362 nays. Overall the state voted down the convention by a tally of 47,323 to 46,677. Craven sent two delegates, John D. Whitford and George Green, both southern rights Democrats, while Carteret sent only one, Charles R. Thomas, chairman of a Union meeting in Beaufort on December 15, 1860
40. See John L. Cheney Jr., ed., North Carolina Government, 1585-1979: A Narrative and Statistical History (Raleigh, 1981), 386-87, 399-401 (p. 399 for statewide vote count)
41. New Bern Daily Progress, December 20, 1860, and February 28, 1861
42. and Alan D. Watson, A History of New Bern and Craven County (New Bern, 1987), 246-47 (p. 246 for Craven vote count)
43. For more on the Unionist debates over secession, see Daniel W. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (Chapel Hill, 1989)
44. and William Barney, The Road to Secession: A New Perspective on the Old South (New York, 1972), chap. 5
45. New Bern Daily Progress, April 16, 1861 (quotation)
46. For reaction to Lincoln's proclamation, see Harris, With Charity for All, 58-59
47. William C Harris, North Carolina and the Coming of the Civil War (Raleigh, 1988), 56
48. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 276-82
49. and Crofts, Reluctant Confederates, chap. 13
50. Pender captured the fort on April 14, 1861. Hugh Buckner Johnston, "Pender, Josiah Solomon," in William S. Powell, ed., Dictionary of North Carolina Biography. Vol. V: P-S (Chapel Hill, 1994), 62-63 (Johnston mistakenly wrote that Pender captured Fort Macon on April 11. The New Bern Daily Progress, April 16 and 19, 1861, gives the correct date as April 14, 1861)
51. Deposition of Job L. Kinsey, Calvin Perry v. United States (case file no. 8958) (first quotation)
52. Deposition of William Rowe, Arrington Purify, administrator of Thomas Purify v. United States (case file no. 7852) (second and third quotations)
53. Deposition of Clifford Simpson, Gabriel Hardison v. United States (case file no. 8070) (fourth quotation), Records of the United States Court of Claims, Record Group 123, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; hereinafter cited as RG 123
54. Blair, Virginia's Private War, 141 (quotations), 146
55. For an explanation of how national identity interconnects with local identity, see David M. Potter, "The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa," in Potter, The South and the Sectional Conflict (Baton Rouge, 1968), 34-83
56. Citizens of the Carteret region, of course, had many competing loyalties. As Thomas G. Dyer has perceptively written, people have always had multiple loyalties: "Allegiances to family, home, friends, lodges, church, class, state, and region (among others) competed with or complemented national loyalty." In peacetime, loyalties can complement each other, but in wartime "demands arise that national loyalty be paramount and controlling." See Dyer, Secret Yankees, 4
57. For more on the concept of multiple loyalties, see Harold Guetzkow, Multiple Loyalties: Theoretical Approach to a Problem in International Organization (Princeton, 1955)
58. and George P. Fletcher, Loyalty: An Essay on the Morality of Relationships (New York, 1993)
59. Louis H. Manarin, comp., North Carolina Troops, 1861-1865: A Roster. Vol. I: Artillery (Raleigh 1966) 113-24, 269-72
60. Benjamin [L]eecraft to John W. Ellis, June 29, 1861, in Tolbert, 'ed., Papers of John Willis Ellis, II, 875-76 (quotations). The latter volume has Leecraft incorrectly cited as Seecraft
61. For further examination of the role of violence and combat in the creation and reaffirmation of masculine codes of honor, see Bertram Wyatt-Brown Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (New York, 1982)
62. Richard E Nisbett and Dov Cohen, Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South (Boulder, Colo 1996)
63. and Pieter Spierenburg, ed., Men and Violence: Gender, Honor, and Rituals in Modern Europe and America ([Columbus, Ohio], 1998)
64. This contrasts with what Margaret M. Storey discovered in her study of Alabama Unionists Storey argues that Alabama Unionists "took it as a matter of duty that they should reproduce their own political loyalty among their sons, grandsons, and nephews. . . . [and] they frequently demanded that the actions of younger male relatives reflect, and sometimes directly extend their own loyalty to the Union." Margaret M. Storey, "Civil War Unionists and the Political Culture ot Loyalty in Alabama, 1860-1861," Journal of Southern History, 69 (February 2003) 89-90
65. However, W. Todd Groce, whose work identifies and explains the substantial but historically neglected Confederate presence in East Tennessee, also finds that many Unionist fathers were dismayed to watch their sons join the Confederate cause over their objections. W. Todd Groce, Mountain Rebels: East Tennessee Confederates and the Civil War, 1860-1870 (Knoxville 1999), chap. 4
66. Deposition of George Hardison, Gabriel Hardison v. United States (case file no. 8070), RG 123 (fourth quotation)
67. Testimony of claimant Jesse Fulcher, Claim 19070, Carteret County, RG 233 (fifth, sixth, and seventh quotations). For more on how the Southern Claims Commission operated, see Frank W. Klingberg, The Southern Claims Commission (Berkeley, 1955)
68. Deposition of H. B. Hill (first quotation), "Brief for the Claimant on Loyalty," December term, 1886 (second and third quotations)
69. 1860 U.S. Census, Carteret County, N.C., Population, NAMS M-653, reel 890. For further depictions of the methods of enforcing community values see Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor, part III, especially pp. 435-38
70. John G. Parke to Lewis Richmond, May 9, 1862 (bombardment), Official Records, Ser. I, Vol. IX, 284
71. Moses J. White to Theophilus H. Holmes, May 4, 1862, ibid., 293 (quotation)
72. and "Terms of Capitulation," ibid., 276 (parole)
73. Grimsley, Hard Hand of War, 111-19
74. Fellman, Citizen Sherman, 137-48
75. Donald S Frazier, "Out of Stinking Distance': The Guerrilla War in Louisiana," in Daniel E. Sutherland ed., Guerrillas, Unionist, and Violence on the Confederate Home Front (Fayetteville, Ark., 1999), 151-70
76. For other explorations of guerrilla warfare, see Robert R. Mackey, The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861-1865 (Norman, Okla., 2004)
77. Crawford, Ashe County's Civil War
78. and Noel C. Fisher, War at Every Door: Partisan Politics and Guerrilla Violence in East Tennessee, 1860-1869 (Chapel Hill, 1997)
79. John A. Hedrick to Benjamin S. Hedrick, June 20, 1862, and October 25, 1863, in Judkin Browning and Michael Thomas Smith, eds., Letters from a North Carolina Unionist: John A. Hedrick to Benjamin S. Hedrick, 1862-1865 (Raleigh, 2001), 7-8 and 163-64 (Taylor's hotel)
80. Pender's Atlantic House Hotel became Hammond General Hospital from April 1862 until it was closed on January 14, 1865. See Johnston, "Pender, Josiah Solomon," 62-63
81. and Entry dated January 14, 1865, Edmund Janes Cleveland Diary #2888, SHC
82. Manarin, comp., North Carolina Troops, I, 128 (sons join Pool's company)
83. John A Hedrick to Benjamin S. Hedrick, July 10, 1862 (use of room) and September 8, 1862 (quotation), in Browning and Smith, eds., Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 13, 34
84. Businessmen were required to take the oath. See James Rumley diary, undated entry [before April 23, 1862]
85. and James E. Glazier to Annie G. Monroe, October 26, 1862 James Edward Glazier Papers (Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif). Glazier wrote that "the white people of this city have had their choice - to take the oath or leave." I would like to thank Michael Thomas Smith for researching the Glazier papers for me
86. Entries dated January 12, 1865 (Day's poorhouse) and February 16, 1865 (Davis's billiard parlor), Cleveland Diary
87. James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997)
88. Weymouth T. Jordan Jr., comp., North Carolina Troops, 1861-1865: A Roster. Vol. IV: Infantry (Raleigh, 1973), 174-84; 1860 U.S. Census, Carteret County, N.C., Population, NAMS M-653, reel 890
89. J. Madison Drake, The History of the Ninth New Jersey Veteran Vols.: A Record of Its Service . . . (Elizabeth, N.J., 1889), 79 (Roberts as cavalry guide); Testimony of claimant James Roberts, Claim 12135, Carteret County, RG 217 (Roberts as pilot, disagreement with brothers); Testimony of claimant William T. Fulcher, Claim 9860, Carteret County, Testimony of claimant Asa Piver, Claim 15876, Carteret County, and Testimony of claimant Blount Cherry, Claim 11628, Carteret County, all in RG 217 (indigent fisherman guides)
90. For more information on the First and Second North Carolina Union regiments and the etymology of buffaloes, see Judkin Jay Browning, '"Little Souled Mercenaries'? The Buffaloes of Eastern North Carolina during the Civil War," North Carolina Historical Review 77 (July 2000), 337-63
91. Allen, Forty-Six Months with the Fourth R.I. Volunteers, 116-17
92. Edwin Stanton to Edward Stanly, May 19, 1862, Official Records, Ser. I, Vol. IX, 396-97 (Stanly appointment)
93. Ambrose Burnside, "Proclamation made to the People of North Carolina," February 16, 1862, ibid., 363-64
94. New Bern Daily Progress, March 26, 1862 (quotation)
95. Daniel Read Lamed to Henry Howe, March 26, 1862 (first quotation)
96. and Daniel Read Larned to Mrs. Ambrose E. Burnside, March 30, 1862 (second quotation), Box 1, Daniel Read Larned Papers (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C)
97. John K. Burlingame, History of the Fifth Regiment of Rhode Island Heavy Artillery . . . (Providence, 1892), 59 (third and fourth quotations)
98. Drake, History of the Ninth New Jersey Veteran Vols., 71 (fifth and sixth quotations)
99. Edward J. Bartlett to "Dear Martha," January 30, 1863, Edward J. Bartlett Letters (Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass.; hereinafter cited as MHS) (first quotation)
100. Joseph Barlow to Ellen Barlow, May 29, 1863, Joseph Barlow Papers (United States Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.; hereinafter USAMHI) (second quotation)
101. John M. Spear, "Army life in the twenty-fourth regiment, Massachusetts volunteer infantry, Dec. 1861 to Dec. 1864, 1892" (typescript), p. 115, MHS (third quotation)
102. Charles Henry Tubbs to "My dear wife," March 1, 1863, Charles Henry Tubbs Letters, NCSA (fourth and fifth quotations)
103. James E. Glazier to "Dear Parents," February 2, 1863, Glazier Papers (sixth and seventh quotations)
104. Edward Stanly to John G. Foster, March 28, 1863, Box 2 (first quotation), and November 13, 1862, Box 1 (second quotation), Part I, Letters Received, Department of North Carolina, RG 393
105. William Augustus Willoughby to wife, January 22, 1863, in Nina Silber and Mary Beth Sievens, eds., Yankee Correspondence: Civil War Letters between New England Soldiers and the Home Front (Charlottesville, 1996), 97 (quotations)
106. Joseph Barlow to Ellen, October 25, 1862, Barlow Papers (eviction)
107. Entry dated November 25, 1862, William Seagraves Diary [typescript], Civil War Times Illustrated Collection, USAMHI (eviction)
108. Oliver W. Peabody to Mary L. Peabody, April 21, 1863, Oliver W. Peabody Papers, MHS (eviction)
109. Louis S. Gerteis, "'A Friend of the Enemy': Federal Efforts to Suppress Disloyalty in St. Louis During the Civil War," Missouri Historical Review, 96 (April 2002), 165-87
110. Colonel J. Jourdan to Peck, November 25, 1863 (first quotation), and Colonel Jourdan, General Order No. 26 [December 1863] (second quotation), Part II, Letters Sent, October 1863-March 1864, District and Subdistrict of Beaufort, North Carolina, Entry 940, RG 393
111. John A. Hedrick to Benjamin S. Hedrick, November 29, 1863 (third quotation), and March 13, 1864 (fourth, fifth, and sixth quotations), in Browning and Smith, eds., Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 170, 191
112. For an examination of standard procedures in U.S. Army occupation policy, see Andrew J. Birtle, U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine, 1860-1941 (Washington, D.C, 1998), chap. 2
113. C.C. Graves to "Union Paymaster at Fort Monroe, VA," March 11, 1864, First N.C. Infantry Regimental Descriptive Books, Vol. 3, Book Records of Volunteer Union Organizations, RG 94 (joining for provisions and pay)
114. C. H. Foster to J. B. Frye, January 5, 1864 (first quotation)
115. C. H. Foster to J. M. McChesney, December 15, 1863 (second and third quotations)
116. and C. H. Foster to B. B. Foster, March 13, 1864 (twenty-eight deserters), all in Second N.C. Infantry Regimental Letter, Endorsement & Order Book, RG 94
117. Innis Palmer to Major R. S. Davis, May 17, 1864, Part I, Letters Sent, Departments of North Carolina and Virginia, 1861-1865, RG 393 (fourth quotation)
118. George W. Jones to Walter S. Poor, April 15, 1864, George W. Jones Service File, Second Regiment N.C. Infantry, RG 94 (microfilm at NCSA) (fifth, sixth, and seventh quotations)
119. For a more thorough exploration of the executions at Kinston, see Lesley J. Gordon, "'In Time of War': Unionists Hanged in Kinston, North Carolina, February 1864," in Sutherland, ed., Guerrillas, Unionists, and Violence, 45-58
120. and Donald E. Collins, "War Crime or Justice? General George Pickett and the Mass Execution of Deserters in Civil War Kinston, North Carolina," in Steven E. Woodworth, ed., The Art of Command in the Civil War (Lincoln, Neb., 1998), 50-83
121. Louis S. Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman: Federal Policy Toward Southern Blacks, 1861-1865 (Westport, Conn., 1973), 32
122. C. Vann Woodward, "Equality: The Deferred Commitment," in Woodward, The Burden of Southern History (3rd ed.; Baton Rouge, 1993), 69-88
123. Horace James, Annual Report of the Superintendent of Negro Affairs in North Carolina, 1864. With an Appendix Containing the History and Management of Freedmen in this Department up to June 1st, 1865 (Boston, [1865]), 3-6
124. 1860 U.S. Census, Carteret and Craven Counties, Population and Slave, NAMS M-653, reels 890, 894, and 921
125. For a fuller treatment of the African American community in the region, see my dissertation, '"Wearing the Mask of Nationality Lightly': The Effects of Union Military Occupation During the Civil War" (working title, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, forthcoming 2006), chap. 4
126. Edward Stanly to Edwin Stanton, June 12, 1862, Official Records, Ser. I, Vol. IX, 399-402
127. Rowse Reynolds Clarke to Dr. John George Metcalf, June 5, 1862, Box 3, Folder 5, Civil War Collection (American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.; hereinafter AAS) (first and third quotations)
128. For more on the Bray affair, see Norman D. Brown, Edward Stanly: Whiggery's Tarheel "Conqueror" (University, Ala., 1974), 208-14
129. Though the Emancipation Proclamation exempted several occupied sections of the Confederacy from its power (notably parts of Virginia and Louisiana and the entire state of Tennessee), North Carolina in its entirety came under the power of the proclamation. See "Emancipation Proclamation," in Michael P. Johnson, ed., Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War: Selected Writings and Speeches (Boston, 2001), 218-19
130. For more on the American Missionary Association, see Richard Bryant Drake, "The American Missionary Association and the Southern Negro, 1861-1888" (Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University, 1957)
131. and Joe M. Richardson, Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861-1890 (Athens, Ga., 1986)
132. For an examination of the role missionaries played among North Carolina freedpeople, see Patricia C. Click, Time Full of Trial: The Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony, 1862-1867 (Chapel Hill, 2001)
133. See Brown, Edward Stanly, 246
134. Corporal [Zenas T. Haines], Letters from the Forty-Fourth Regiment . . . (Boston, 1863), 90
135. Letter from H. S. Beals, August 18, 1863, American Missionary, 7 (October 1863), 231 (first and second quotations)
136. William B. Fowle Jr. to Major Southard Hoffman, January 14, 1863, Box 2, Part I, Letters Received, Department of North Carolina, RG 393 (third quotation)
137. Several scholars argue that slaves were the prime movers in forcing Emancipation. See Ira Berlin et al., Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War (Cambridge, Eng., 1992)
138. Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York, 1981)
139. and Julie Saville, The Work of Reconstruction: From Slave to Wage Laborer in South Carolina, 1860-1870 (New York, 1994)
140. Storey, "Civil War Unionists and the Political Culture of Loyalty in Alabama," 75
141. "The Freedmen," American Missionary, 7 (March 1863), 58 (first quotation); Entry dated May 30, 1863 (second quotation), and entry dated August [n.d.], 1862 (third and fourth quotations), Rumley Diary, Pigott Collection. Jim Cullen has persuasively argued that enlistment in Union regiments greatly enhanced black men's fundamental self-perceptions: "As the material conditions of their lives changed - as they joined the armed forces, were freed from slavery, or both - so too did their ideological conceptions of themselves as men."
142. See Jim Cullen, "I's a Man Now': Gender and African American Men," in Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber, eds., Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (New York, 1992), 77
143. Entry dated March 25, 1863, Rumley Diary, Pigott Collection (first and fourth quotations); John A. Hedrick to Benjamin S. Hedrick, May 3, 1863 (third quotation) and July 26, 1863 (second quotation), in Browning and Smith, eds., Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 115, 140
144. The literature on the nature of white unity in the antebellum South is vast. For works that refer to unity based on racial white supremacy, see George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York, 1971)
145. Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (New York, 1988)
146. William J. Cooper Jr., Liberty and Slavery: Southern Politics to 1860 (New York, 1983)
147. J. William Harris, Plain Folk and Gentry in a Slave Society: White Liberty and Black Slavery in Augusta's Hinterlands (Middletown, Conn., 1985)
148. and W. J. Cash, The Mind of the South (New York, 1941)
149. For a work that refers to unity based on gendered power constructs, see Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York, 1995)
150. For a recent analysis of the historiographical debates over antebellum white unity, see Judkin Browning, "Foundations of Sand: Evaluating the Historical Assessments of White Unity in the Antebellum South," Gulf South Historical Review, 19 (Spring 2004), 6-38
151. There is an extensive literature on northern white soldiers' reactions to black civilians and soldiers. For just a sample, see Joseph T. Glatthaar, The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns (New York, 1985)
152. and Jacqueline Glass Campbell, When Sherman Marched North from the Sea: Resistance on the Confederate Home Front (Chapel Hill, 2003)
153. For an examination of the cultural baggage regarding race that New England soldiers brought to war, see David A. Cecere, "Carrying the Home Front to War: Soldiers, Race, and New England Culture during the Civil War," in Paul A. Cimbala and Randall M. Miller, eds., Union Soldiers and the Northern Home Front: Wartime Experiences, Postwar Adjustments (New York, 2002), 293-323
154. For a fuller treatment of Union soldiers' racism in this region, see Browning, "'Wearing the Mask of Nationality Lightly,'" chap. 5
155. James, Annual Report of the Superintendent of Negro Affairs in North Carolina, 20 (first quotation)
156. Edwin Fish to Lucy Fish, September 25, 1862, Edwin R. Fish Papers (Special Collections and Archives, Robert W. Woodruff Library, Emory University, Atlanta, Ga.), microfilm (third quotation)
157. Edward J. Bartlett to "Dear Martha," January 30, 1863, Bartlett Letters (fourth and fifth quotations). For more on the experience of poor whites during Union occupation, see Stephen V. Ash, "Poor Whites in the Occupied South, 1861-1865," Journal of Southern History, 57 (February 1991), 39-62
158. Entry dated November 28, 1864, Cleveland Diary (panic at black church); Sing-Nan Fen, "Notes on the Education of Negroes in North Carolina During the Civil War," Journal of Negro Education, 36 (Winter 1967), 26n11 (first quotation)
159. Don H. Doyle, Faulkner's County: The Historical Roots of Yoknapatawpha (Chapel Hill, 2001), 269 (second quotation)
160. Sidney Andrews, The South Since the War, As Shown by Fourteen Weeks of Travel and Observation in Georgia and the Carolinas (1866; reprint, Boston, 1971), 392 (first quotation)
161. Whitelaw Reid quoted in Roberta Sue Alexander, North Carolina Faces the Freedmen: Race Relations during Presidential Reconstruction, 1865-67 (Durham, 1985), 34 (second quotation)
162. J. Waldo Denny, Wearing the Blue in the Twenty-Fifth Mass. Volunteer Infantry . . . (Worcester, 1879), 227 (third quotation)
163. Those men who served in the North Carolina Union Regiments faced even greater hostility. As one Union officer pleaded to Federal authorities after the war, "Surely the government will not now send them to their home defenseless, leaving them to the mercy of those from whom both themselves & families have suffered taunts, & violence during the rebellion." For local whites who detested the occupation, "the humiliation of defeat & subjugation can never eradicate unprincipled hatred from their bosom nor prevent secret plots of midnight violence & highway murders." Oscar Eastmond to J. A. Campbell, June 10, 1865, First N.C. Infantry Regimental Letter and Endorsement Book, RG 94. See also Browning, "'Little Souled Mercenaries'?" 362-63
164. E. A. Harkness to Southard Hoffman, March 5, 1863, Box 2, Part I, Letters Received, Department of North Carolina, Ser. 3238, RG 393 (Ensley refuses oath)
165. B. A. Ensley to J. Jourdan, January 28, 1864, Part II, Letters Sent, October 1863-March 1864, District and Subdistrict of Beaufort, Entry 940, RG 393 (negotiations)
166. New Bern Weekly Progress, September 20, 1862 (Davis as Unionist)
167. North Carolina, Vol. 5, p. 176-L, R. G. Dun & Co. Collection (first and second quotations)
168. Tom Stevenson to Hannah, October 9, 1862, Walcott Family Papers II, MHS (taunting Union officers)
169. Daniel R. Goodloe to B. S. Hedrick, April 24, 1867, Benjamin Sherwood Hedrick Papers (Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, N.C.) (editing newspaper)
170. Alexander, North Carolina Faces the Freedmen, 16, 44-45
171. For a work that conveys how whites used racial violence to accomplish their conservative political ends during Reconstruction, see George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens, Ga., 1984)
172. For works that discuss how sectional reconciliation and postwar politics shifted the focus away from African American civil rights, see Heather Cox Richardson, The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post-Civil War North, 1865-1901 (Cambridge, Mass., 2001)
173. David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, Mass., 2001)
174. and Nina Silber, The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, 1993)