War and political violence in twentieth-century Europe

Contemporary European History

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 107-123

  Kershaw, Ian ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 60949672080     PISSN: 09607773     EISSN: 14692171     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0960777304002164     Document Type: Review

References (46)

1. C. L. Mowat, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 2, 9
2. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991 (London: Michael Joseph, 1994), esp. ch.14
3. Arno J. Mayer, Why did the Heavens not Darken? The 'Final Solution' in History (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988), 20, 31ff
4. David Stevenson, Cataclysm. The First World War as Political Tragedy (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 4 (also pointing out that outside Europe, the American Civil War of 1861-5 cost the lives of 600,000 and the Taiping rebellion in China from 1850 to 1864 killed millions)
5. The figure for losses in the Franco-Prussian War is from Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1998), 404
6. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 24, has 'perhaps 150,000'
7. Norman Davies, Europe: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 1328-9
8. Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1998), 277
9. Alan S. Milward, Der Zweite Weltkrieg. Krieg, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft 1939-1945 (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1977), 211
10. Michael Mann, 'Explaining Murderous Ethnic Cleansing: The Macro-Level', unpublished paper, 2000, 2
11. John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914. A History of Denial (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2001), 74-84
12. Cited in Antony Polonsky, Fascism, Historical Studies in Film 6 (London: InterUniversity History Film Consortium, n.d.), 2-6
13. Drieu's views are well examined by Robert Soucy, Fascist Intellectual. Drieu la Rochelle (Berkeley and London: University of California Press), 1979
14. Adrian Lyttelton, ed., Italian Fascisms from Pareto to Gentile (London: Jonathan Cape, 1973), 147
15. Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 22-3
16. See Enzo Traverso, The Origins of Nazi Violence (New York and London: The New Press, 2003), ch. 2
17. Dietrich Beyrau, 'Der Erste Weltkrieg als Bewährungsprobe. Bolschewistische Lernprozesse aus dem "imperialistischen" Krieg', Journal of Modern European History, 1,1 (2003), 96-124
18. Davies, Europe, 1329
19. Beyrau, 'Der Erste Weltkrieg', 99
20. Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy. The Russian Revolution 1891-1924 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996), 678-9
21. Piotr Wróbel, 'The Seeds of Violence. The Brutalization of an East European Region, 1917-1921', Journal of Modern European History, 1, 1 (2003), 125-49, 136-40, 145
22. See Bernd Weisbrod, 'Gewalt in der Politik. Zur politischen Kultur in Deutschland zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen', Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, 43 (1992), 391-404
23. Whilst it is certainly true that most men were not converted by their experience at the front into rabid right-wing paramilitary proto-Nazis, and re-entered civilian life with remarkably little difficulty, some revisionist writing goes too far in underplaying the continuities of brutalisation from the war, across the violence of the Freikorps, and into the politics of the Weimar Republic. An example of the newer trend in research is Benjamin Ziemann, 'Germany after the First World War - A Violent Society? Results and Implications of Recent Research on Weimar Germany', Journal of Modern European History, 1, 1 (2003), 80-95
24. Cited in Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front. Culture, National Identity and German Occupation in World War 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 278, and see the similar images discussed in ch. 5
25. Ralf Dreier and Wolfgang Sellert, Recht und Justiz im "Dritten Reich" (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkampf, 1989), 328
26. Ian Kershaw, The 'Hitler Myth': Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 84-95
27. Michael Wildt, Generation des Unbedingten. Das Führungskorps des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2002)
28. Adrian Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power. Fascism in Italy 1919-1929, 2nd edn (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987), chs. 2-3
29. Christopher Seton-Watson, Italy from Liberalism to Fascism 1870-1925 (London: Methuen, 1967), 505ff., 596ff
30. Franciso J. Romero Salvado, 'Spain and the First World War: The Structural Crisis of the Liberal Monarchy', European History Quarterly, 25 (1995), 529-54
31. Helen Graham, The Spanish Republic at War 1936-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 7-12
32. See António Costa Pinto, The Blue Shirts. Portuguese Fascists and the New State (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 44-52
33. Michael Mann, 'The Dark Side of Democracy: The Modern Tradition of Ethnic and Political Cleansing', New Left Review, 235 (May/June 1999), 18-45, 25-7
34. Mann, 'Dark Side of Democracy', 19. His forthcoming book takes the modernity of ethnic cleansing as one of its main arguments
35. Götz Aly, 'Theodor Schieder, Werner Conze oder Die Vorstufen der physischen Vernichtung', in Winfried Schulze and Otto Gerhard Oexle, eds., Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1999), 163-82, 163-5
36. And see Michael Burleigh, Germany turns Eastwards. A Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988)
37. See Edwin Black, IBM and the Holocaust (New York: Little, Brown, 2001)
38. From an extensive literature: Norbert Frei, ed., Medizin und Gesundheitspolitik in der NS-Zeit (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1991)
39. Francis R. Nicosia and Jonathan Huener, eds., Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany. Origins, Practices, Legacies (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002)
40. Eugen Kogon, Hermann Langbein and Adalbert Rückerl, eds., Nationalsozialistische Massentötungen durch Giftgas. Eine Dokumentation (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1986), 282
41. Kogon, Langbein and Rückerl, 219-21
42. Robert Jan van Pelt and Debórah Dwork, Auschwitz: 1270 to the Present (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996), 177, 269
43. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), 17
44. The high level of violence used is described by Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 115-19, 126-30
45. Leo Kuper, Genocide. Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1981), 186
46. For an elaboration of similar points, see Mann, Dark Side of Democracy, ch.18, 18-19