New Zealand 'naturally': Ernst Dieffenbach, environmental determinism and the mid nineteenth-century British colonization of New Zealand

New Zealand Journal of History

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 22-37

  Grant, Robert ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 60949614014     PISSN: 00288322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Extract from Dieffenbach's contract with the Company, quoted in Gerda Bell, Ernest Dieffenbach: Rebel and Humanist, Palmerston North, 1976, pp.29-30. Bell's remains the only substantive biography of Dieffenbach.
2. Nathaniel Portlock, Voyage round the World . . . in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, London, 1789. Portlock's voyage to the north-west American coast was prosecuted under the auspices of the King George's Sound Company with the express intention of initiating a lucrative trade in fur from America to China.
3. Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860, Cambridge, 1995, p.310.
4. Arthur Thomson, The Story of New Zealand: Past and Present - Savage and Civilized, London, 1859, II, pp.346-62.
5. Theophilus Heale, New Zealand and the New Zealand Company, London, 1842, p.9.
6. Ernst Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, 2 vols, London, 1843.
7. The journal of John Barnicoat, a company employee, recorded on 9 February 1843 that Dieffenbach was threatened with legal action if he published anything unfavourable to Company interests. Bell, p.85.
8. Pat Moloney, 'Savagery and Civilization: Early Victorian Notions', New Zealand Journal of History, 35, 2 (2001), pp. 153-76.
9. Quoted in Patricia Burns, Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company, ed., Henry Richardson, Auckland, 1989, pp.86-87.
10. John Ward, Information Relative to New Zealand: Compiled for the Use of Colonists, London, 1842, pp. 120-1.
11. Great Britain, House of Commons, Report from the Select Committee on New Zealand, London, 1840, p.75.
12. Ward, Information Relative to New Zealand, p.79.
13. See Saxe Bannister, Humane Policy; or, Justice to the Aborigines of New Settlements, London, 1830;
14. Charles Napier, Colonization: Particularly Southern Australia, London, 1835;
15. William Howitt, Colonization and Christianity: A Popular History of the Treatment of Natives by the Europeans in all Their Colonies, London, 1838.
16. Charles Heaphy, Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand, London, 1842, p.66.
17. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, I, pp. 19-20.
18. William Brock, Justus Von Liebi: The Chemical Gatekeeper, Cambridge, 1997.
19. On German philosophical idealism, see Hugh Nisbet, ed., German Aesthetic and Literary Criticism: Winckelmann, Lessing, Hamann, Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Cambridge, 1985;
20. Maurice Olender, 'The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion, and Philology in the Nineteenth Century', MA thesis, University of Cambridge, 1992, particularly chapters 2, 3, pp.21-50;
21. Jan Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture, New Haven and London, 1992, pp.47-49.
22. Johann Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Riga and Leipzig, 1784-1791.
23. First English edition: Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man, trans, T. Churchill, London, 1800.
24. Ernst Dieffenbach, On the Study of Ethnology, London, 1843, p.8.
25. This was not a new idea. Samuel Smith had outlined the contours of such a map in 1789 in Essay on the Causes and Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species, London, 1789, pp.39-42,
26. and James Cowles Prichard actually produced a set in 1843, Six Ethnographical Maps, London, 1843.
27. Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, trans, Thomas Nugent, London, 1750;
28. Johan Friedrich Blumenbach, De generis hvmani varietate nativa liber, Goettingae, 1781;
29. Smith, Essay on the Causes and Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species;
30. George Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Natural History, General and Particular, trans, William Smellie, new edition by William Wood, London and York, 1812.
31. Johann Forster, Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World, London, 1778, p.361.
32. Alexander von Humboldt, Examen Critique de L'Histoire de la Géographie du Nouveau Continent [Critical Examination of the History of the Geography of the New Continent], Paris, 1836-1839.
33. John Millar, Origin of the Distinction of Ranks, London, 1806, pp.8-9.
34. See, also, George Craik, The New Zealanders, London, 1830, p.382;
35. John Nicholas, Narrative of a Voyage to New Zealand, London, 1817, I, pp.15, 16;
36. Joel Polack, Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders, London, 1840, I, pp.6, 188.
37. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, II, pp.139-40.
38. William Yate, Account of New Zealand, London, 1835, p.106.
39. Robert Hay, 'Notices of New Zealand. From original documents in the Colonial Office', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, II ( 1831 -32), pp. 133-6.
40. Other examples include Morris Birkbeck, Journey in America, London, 1818, pp.116-17;
41. Henry Fearon, Sketches of America, London, 1818, p.169;
42. William Faux, Memorable Days in America, London, 1823, pp.312, 315, 389.
43. For example, Robert Gourlay, Statistical Account of Upper Canada, London, 1822, I, p.144;
44. Robert Dawson, The Present State of Australia, London, 1830, p.324;
45. James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 4th edn, London, 1837-1845, I, pp. 117-118;
46. 'Public Health and Mortality', Quarterly Review, 66, 131 (1840) p.146.
47. Patrick Matthew, Emigration Fields. North America, the Cape, Australia, and New Zealand, Edinburgh and London, 1839, pp. 19-24, 219-20.
48. Herder, Origins of Philosophy of the History of Man, p.204.
49. Ernst Dieffenbach, New Zealand and the New Zealanders, London, 1841, p.iv.
50. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, I, pp.9-12, 190, 209.
51. Ward, Information Relative to New Zealand, p.49;
52. New Zealand Journal, 8 May 1841;
53. Henry Petre, An Account of the Settlements of the New Zealand Company, London, 1842, p.30.
54. The Times, 6 April 1844.
55. W. Tyrone Power, Sketches in New Zealand with Pen and Pencil, London, 1849, pp.275-7, 279-80;
56. Michael Russell, Polynesia: A History of the South Sea Islands, 2nd ed., London, 1852, p.433;
57. William Swainson, New Zealand and its Colonization, London, 1859, pp.86-87;
58. Sarah Tucker, The Southern Cross and Southern Crown, London, 1855, pp.4(n), 7(n), 12(n), 202.
59. See, for example, Paul Sandby, XII Views in Aquatinta . . . in South-Wales, London, 1775;
60. Thomas Horne, The Lakes of Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, London, 1816;
61. William Daniell, A Voyage Round Great Britain, London, 1814-25.
62. 'First Report to the New Zealand Company, on the Physical Condition and Natural History of Queen Charlotte's Sound, Cloudy Bay, Tory Channel, Port Nicholson, and the Surrounding Country', in John Ward, Supplementary Information Relevant to New Zealand, London, 1840, pp. 107-9.
63. Dieffenbach, New Zealand and the New Zealanders, pp.27-28.
64. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, London, 1992, p.52.
65. A small sample would include Julie Codell and Dianne Sachko Macleod, eds, Orientalism Transposed: The Impact of the Colonies on British Culture, Aldershot, 1998;
66. Antoinette Burton, ed., Gender, Sexuality, and Colonial Modernities, London, 1999;
67. Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830-1867, Cambridge, 2002;
68. Shearer West, ed., The Victorians and Race, Aldershot, 1996.
69. Henry Kames, Sketches of the History of Man, London and Edinburgh, 1778;
70. Charles White, An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, London, 1799;
71. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach A Manual of Comparative Anatomy, trans., Johann Friedrich Blumenbach with additional notes by William Lawrence, London, 1827.
72. On the eclipse of the philanthropic interest, see Alan Lester, Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-century South Africa and Britain, London, 2001;
73. or Andrew Bank, 'Losing Faith in the Civilizing Mission: The Premature Decline of Humanitarian Liberalism at the Cape, 1840-60', in Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern, eds, Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600-1850, Philadelphia, 1999, pp.364-83.
74. On Arthur Thomson, see Michael Belgrave, 'Thomson, Arthur Saunders 1816-1860', Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, URL: http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/ (updated 22 April 2002).
75. Thomas Carlyle, Occasional Discourse on the Nigger Question, London, 1853;
76. Robert Knox, The Races of Men: a Fragment, London, 1850;
77. Charles Smith, The Natural History of the Human Species, London, 1859.
78. Paul Kramer, 'Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880-1910', Journal of American History, 88, 4 (2002), p.1322.
79. Godfrey Mundy, Our Antipodes: or, Residence and Rambles in the Australasian Colonies, London, 1852, II, pp. 105-7, 244;
80. Richard Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, London, 1855, p.253;
81. Edward Fitton, New Zealand: Its Present Condition, Prospects and Resources, London, 1856, p.202;
82. Charles Hursthouse, New Zealand, or Zealandia, the Britain of the South, London, 1857, I, pp. 101-2;