Strange young men in Stalin's Moscow: The birth and life of the Stiliagi, 1945-1953

Jahrbucher fur Geschichte Osteuropas

Volumn 50, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 37-61

  Edele, Mark ^a  

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References (246)

1. "I would only believe in a god who could dance." FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE Werke in drei Bänden. Köln 1994. Vol. 2, S. 127.
2. A. N. SHELEPIN Otchet TsK VLKSM XII s"ezdu. Doklad sekretaria TsK VLKSM, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda March 20, 1954, p. 3.
3. On Stalinism as a "Civilization" see STEPHEN KOTKIN Magnetic Mountain. Stalinism as a Civilization. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 1995.
4. The term "public sphere" as used in this paper refers to the universe of spaces and institutions which make the circulation of discourses about the identity, interests and needs of an interactive community (a "public") possible. This is a much broader definition than the one used by JÜRGEN HABERMAS The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Transl. by Thomas Burger with the assistance of Frederick Lawrence. Cambridge, MA 1989.
5. Cf. JEFFREY BROOKS Thank You Comrade Stalin. Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War. Princeton, NJ 2000, p. 195.
6. "Class" is used here in a Weberian sense, and denotes a group of people with an approximately even distribution of access to and possession of cultural, social, and material resources. See MAX WEBER Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Grundriß der verstehenden Soziologie. 5th rev. ed. Tübingen 1990, p. 177. "Golden Youth" (zolotaia molodezh') is a term used by contemporaries to describe the children of the absolute top of Stalinist society.
7. Social stratification and the creation of a new elite within Stalinist society was first analyzed by LEON TROTSKY The Revolution Betrayed. What is the Soviet Union and where is it going? New York, London 1972 [1937],
8. and elaborated by MILOVAN DJILAS The New Class. An Analysis of the Communist System. New York, Washington 1957.
9. The attainment of seemingly "bourgeois" markers of respectability ("embourgeoisement") by this elite has famously been analyzed by VERA DUNHAM In Stalin's Time. Middleclass Values in Soviet Fiction. Enlarged and Updated ed. Durham, London 1990 [1976].
10. For a classical analysis of this process of cultural solidification of social distinctions see PIERRE BOURDIEU Distinctions. A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Transl. by Richard Nice. Cambridge, MA 1984.
11. ELENA ZUBKOVA Russia After the War. Hopes, Illusions, and Dissappointments, 1945-1957. Transl. and ed. by Hugh Ragsdale. Armonk, New York, London 1998, pp. 20-30;
12. ELENA ZUBKOVA Poslevoennoe sovetskoe obshchestvo: Politika I povsednevnost' 1945-1953. Moskva 2000, pp. 28-54;
13. and AMIR WEINER Making Sense of War. The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution. Princeton, Oxford 2000.
14. On female veterans see BARBARA ALPERN ENGEL The Womanly Face of War. Soviet Women Remember World War II, in: Women and War in the Twentieth Century. Enlisted with or without Consent. Ed. by Nicole A. Dombrowski. New York, London 1999, pp. 138-159;
15. ANNA KRYLOVA 'Healers of Wounded Souls': The Crisis of Private Life in Soviet Literature, 1944-46, in: The Journal of Modern History (June 2001).
16. D. BELIAEV Stiliaga, in: Krokodil, March 10, 1949, p. 10.
17. ALEKSEI KOZLOV Kozel na sakse - I tak vsiu zhizn' [...]. Moskva 1998, p. 72.
18. V. BELOKONEV Spravka. [Memo of the nachal'nik upravleniia komiteta gosbezopasnosti pri Sovete Ministrov to the TsK KPSS October 23, 1958]. Ed. by O. Marinin, in: Rodina 11-12 (1992) pp. 62-64, here p. 62 [memo of the head of the administration of the SovMin Committee of State Security Belokonev to the Central Committee, October 23, 1958].
19. S. KOSTIN Muki liubvi, in: Krokodil, November 20, 1945, p. 5.
20. IU. GANF Na vse sto, in: Krokodil, July 10, 1946, p. 5. Many thanks to Anna Krylova who helped me understand this not-so-common Russian: "Kostiumchik otorval mirovetskii, galstuk - na iat', botinochki - zakachaesh'sia! ... Teper' ia kul'turnyi - vo! [...] "
21. EMIL' KROTKI Montifom. Lakirovannyi kogot', in: Krokodil, March 10, 1946, p. 4.
22. To some extent this process resembles the dynamics of subcultural style in capitalist environments. The main difference is that the innovative style is not appropriated by a larger audience through commodification by a culture industry, but through direct imitation. See DICK HEBDIGE Subculture. The Meaning of Style. London, New York 1979.
23. BELIAEV Stiliaga.
24. S. FREDERICK STARR Red and Hot. The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union 1917-1980. New York, Oxford 1983, p. 241. Based on oral history material.
25. VASILII AKSENOV V poiskakh grustnogo bebi. Kniga ob Amerike. Moskva 1991, p. 13.
26. BORIS TIMOFEEV Garri, in: Krokodil, December 20, 1953, p. 5.
27. In an interview given in the 1980s, Kozlov claimed that while he "didn't like what was going on with those people" he "couldn't refuse to associate with them" because of their privileged "access to information." ARTEMY TROITSKY Back in the USSR. The True Story of Rock in Russia. Boston, London 1987, p. 17.
28. RAISA KIRSANOVA Stiliagi. Zapadnaia moda v SSSR 40-50kh godov, in: Rodina 8 (1998) p. 73.
29. BELOKONEV Spravka p. 63.
30. KOZLOV Kozel na sakse p. 72.
31. TROITZKY Back in the USSR p. 14.
32. PENELOPE SASSOON Penelope in Moscow. London 1953, pp. 23, 102;
33. RALPH PARKER Moscow Correspondent. New York 1949, pp. 257-258.
34. V. SLAVKIN Pamiatnik neizvestnomu stiliage. Moskva 1996, p. 75.
35. LUCY ROLLIN Twentieth Century Teen Culture by the Decades. A Reference Guide. Westport, CO, London 1999, pp. 122-125, 170.
36. AKSENOV V poiskakh grustnogo bebi pp. 12-13;
37. SLAVKIN Pamiatnik neizvestnomu stiliage p. 75.
38. See the description in: STARR Red and Hot p. 237. Based on oral history testimony.
39. ALLEN KASSOF The Soviet Youth Program. Regimentation and Rebellion. Cambridge, MA 1965, pp. 118-119.
40. ZUBKOVA Poslevoennoe sovetskoe obshchestvo pp. 152-53;
41. For a detailed discussion of these practices and their importance in Stalinist and post-Stalinist society, see OLEG KHARKHORDIN The Collective and the Individual in Russia. A Study of Practices. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 1999.
42. For biographical information see WOLFGANG KASACK Lexikon der Russischen Literatur des 20. Jahrhunderts. Vom Beginn des Jahrhunderts bis zum Ende der Sowjetära. 2nd rev. ed. München 1992, pp. 1174-1176.
43. TROITSKY Back in the USSR pp. 14-15 (quotation: p. 15).
44. ANNE E. GORSUCH Youth in Revolutionary Russia. Enthusiasts, Bohemians, Delinquents. Bloomington, Indianapolis 2000, pp. 116-138;
45. HILARY PILKINGTON Russia's Youth and Its Culture. A nation's constructors and constructed. London, New York 1994, pp. 276-284.
46. SASSOON Penelope in Moscow p. 39;
47. TIMOFEEV Garri p. 5;
48. DONALD FILTZER The Standard of Living of Soviet Industrial Workers in the Immediate Postwar Period, 1945-1948. European-Asia Studies 51 (1999) no. 6, pp. 1013-1038, here p. 1016.
49. MICHEL GORDEY Visa to Moscow. Transl. from the French by Katherine Woods. New York 1952, p. 69.
50. TRACEY PHILLIPS The Russians Have no Word for Her, in: As We See Russia by Members of the Overseas Press Club of America. New York 1948, pp. 146-147.
51. The miserable material situation of most students is a common theme in literature and memoirs about the period. See IURII BONDAREV Silence. Novel. Transl. by Elisaveta Fen. Boston, Cambridge 1966, pp. 32-33, 156-157;
52. MIKHAIL GORBACHEV Zhizn' I reformy. Moskva 1995, vol. 1, pp. 60-61;
53. RAISSA M. GORBACHEVA Ia nadeius'... Moskva 1991, pp. 68-71;
54. IURII TRIFONOV Dom na naberezhnoi, in: Druzhba narodov (1976) no. 1, pp. III, 114;
55. VLADIMIR TENDRIAKOV Die Jagd, in: WLADIMIR TENDRJAKOW Auf der seligen Insel des Kommunismus. Erzählungen. Transl. by Annelore Nitschke. Frankfurt a.M. 1990, pp. 115-180
56. (orig.: Okhota, in: Znamia [1988], kniga 9, pp. 87-124);
57. and VLADIMIR GUSAROV Moi papa ubil Mikhoelsa. Frankfurt a.M. 1978, p. 90.
58. Examples include the group of students portrayed in: B. PROTOPOPOV, I. SHATUNOVSKII Plesen'. Fel'eton, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, Nov. 19, 1953, p. 3;
59. GUSAROV Moi papa ubil Mikhoelsa;
60. VICTOR VELSKY My Apologia, in: Survey (aut. 1970) no. 77, pp. 146-174;
61. On "obtaining" clothes through "papa's" connections see TRIFONOV Dom na naberezhnoi p. 107.
62. On the culture of connections in the Soviet Union see ALENA V. LEDENOVA Russia's Economy of Favours. Blat, Networking and Informal Exchange. New York, Cambridge 1998.
63. KASSOF The Soviet Youth Program
64. and RALPH TALCOTT FISHER Pattern for Soviet Youth. A Study of the Congresses of the Komsomol, 1918-1954. New York 1959.
65. On surveillance see PETER HOLQUIST 'Information is the Alpha and Omega of Our Work': Bolshevik Surveillance in Its Pan-European Context, in: The Journal of Modern History 69 (September 1997) pp. 415-450.
66. Komsomol'skaia rabota v VUZe (1953).
67. SUSAN MORRISSEY Heralds of Revolution. Russian Students and the Mythologies of Radicalism. New York, Oxford 1998, p. 234;
68. PETER KONECNY Builders and Deserters. Students, State, and Community in Leningrad, 1917-1941. Montreal, London, Ithaca 1999, p. 101.
69. See e.g. ... I tvoi obiazannosti, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, July 17, 1946, p. 3;
70. E. FEDOROV VO Smuzhavshaia iunost', in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, May 1, 1946, p. 2;
71. Glavnoe delo studentov-komsomol'tsev, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, September 21, 1952, 1;
72. By-Laws of the Komsomol, April 6, 1949. Materials for the Study of the Soviet System. State and Party Constitutions, Laws, Decrees, Decisions and official Statements of the Leaders in Translation. Ed. by James Meisel and Edward S. Kozera. 2nd rev. and enlarged ed. Ann Arbor, MI 1953, p. 428.
73. E.g. Boevaia programma raboty komsomola, in: Pravda, April 16, 1949, p. 1;
74. Obkom Partii obsuzhdaet itogi oblastnoi komsomol'skoi konferentsii, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, July 16, 1950, p. 2;
75. B. POLEVOI Molodezh strany sotsializma, in: Pravda, March 29, 1949, p. 2;
76. A. PIMENOV My zhdem vas, tovarishchi iz gorkoma (Pis'mo v redaktsiiu), in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, August 18, 1950, p. 3;
77. Apparat komsomol'skogo komiteta, August 24, 1950, p. 1;
78. IA. TIKHONIN Prodolzhaem razgovor, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, August 24, 1950, p. 2;
79. A. PODIONOV O nastoichivosti I posledovatel'nosti, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, September 20, 1950, p. 2;
80. V. RYKUNOV Vse sily molodezhi - Iiubimoi rodine, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, September 21, 1950, p. 1;
81. E. BORODIN Ne vykhodia iz kabineta, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, September 21, 1950, p. 2;
82. K. P. ZHUKOV Vospityvat' kadry bol'shevistskom dukhe, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, June 21, 1952, p. 2;
83. IU. FILONOVICH Eto ne chastnoe delo. Orvet komsomol'tsam A. Bekhterevu I M. Aleksandrovu, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, September 20, 1950, p. 3.
84. See the review of Komsomol work among Leningrad students in 1948 quoted in ZUBKOVA Sovetskoe poslevoennoe obshchestvo pp. 143-144.
85. FAINSOD HOW Russia is Ruled pp. 248, 529, n. 31.
86. FISHER Pattern for Soviet Youth p. 265, 398, n. 102.
87. See also Ocherki istorii moskovskoi organizatsii VLKSM. Moskva 1976, p. 472.
88. That is, 94 000 members. Ocherki istorii moskovskoi organizatsii VLKSM p. 469.
89. Quoted in FISHER Pattern for Soviet Youth p. 382, n.195.
90. GARF f. r-9396, op. 2, d. 34, 1. 15. "At least" because Komsomol and party membership to some extent overlapped.
91. Cf. HANNAH ARENDT The Origins of Totalitarianism. New ed. San Diego, New York, London 1979, pp. 364-388.
92. For example FAINSOD HOW Russia is Ruled p. 258-259;
93. P. KRUZHIN The Youth Movement in the Soviet Union, in: Youth in the Soviet Union. A Collection of Articles. Munich 1959, pp. 6-7;
94. GORBACHEVA Ia nadeius ... p. 75;
95. A. PLIUSHCH Razgovora o kharaktere, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, August 24, 1950, p. 3.
96. KHARKHORDIN The Collective and the Individual in Russia pp. 291, 355, and passim.
97. For an example of incomplete surveillance of dormitory life see ZDENEK MLYNARZH Moroz udaril iz Kremlia. Moskva 1992, pp. 18-19.
98. GORBACHEV Zhizn' I reformy pp. 59-76;
99. MLYNARZH Moroz udaril iz Kremlia pp. 13-22;
100. TENDRIAKOV Die Jagd;
101. PLIUSHCH Razgovora o kharaktere.
102. VELSKY My Apologia pp. 146-174;
103. VLADIMIR KABO The Road to Australia. Memoirs. Transl. by Rosh Ireland and Kevin Windle. Canberra 1998, pp. 89-141;
104. PROTOPOPOV, SHATUNOVSKII Plesen';
105. BONDAREV Silence;
106. S. NARINIANI Po stopam iaichnitsy. Fel'eton, in: Komsomol'skaia pravda, March 3, 1951, p. 3;
107. VLADIMIR FEIERTAG Dzhaz ot Leningrada do Peterburga. S.-Peterburg 1999, pp. 68-71;
108. ZUBKOVA Russia After The War p. 27.
109. GREGORY M. SMITH The Impact of World War II on Women, Family Life, and Mores in Moscow, 1941-1945. PhD diss., Stanford University 1990, p. 276.
110. PROTOPOPOV, SHATUNOVSKII Plesen'.
111. SMITH The Impact of World War II p. 276.
112. ALEXANDER CLIFFORD, JENNY NICHOLSON The Sickle and the Stars. London 1948, p. 223. The Aragvi still existed in 2002. It was opened, according to its doorman, in 1937.
113. MARIUS ADOLPHE PELTIER Soviet Encounter. Transl. by T. C. Butler. London 1955, p. 180.
114. DON DALLAS Dateline Moscow. Melbourne, London, Toronto 1952, p. 94.
115. KABO The Road to Australia p. 99.
116. HARRISON E. SALISBURY Russia Re-Visited: Crime Wave Goes Unchecked. Violence, Drunkenness and Graft Plague Communist Ruled Country, in: The New York Times, Oct. 1, 1954, p. 25.
117. SALISBURY Russia re-visited.
118. see also PROTOPOPOV, SHATUNOVSKII Plesen';
119. KROTKII Montifom;
120. For the bouncer see PROTOPOPOV, SHATUNOVSKII Plesen';
121. PROTOPOPOV, SHATUNOVSKII Plesen'.
122. KROTKH Montifom;
123. PROTOPOPOV, SHATUNOVSKII Plesen'.
124. BONDAREV Silence p. 165;
125. K. ELISEEV Zachety I nedochety, in: Krokodil, March 10, 1947, 6;
126. A. ORLOV Na studencheskie temy: Kto I kak gotovitsia k ekzamenam, in: Moskovkii komsomolets, April 13, 1946, 3.
127. FAINSOD How Russia is Ruled p. 251;
128. Krokodil did not get tired of criticizing that parks of culture were transformed into huge open air dance halls, and that clubs ceased organizing anything else except for daily dances. M. CHEREMNYKH Ochen' liubim my, kazantsy, uvlekatel'nye tantsy, in: Krokodil, May 20, 1946, pp. 6-7;
129. B. EFIMOV V enskom parke kul'tury. Zarisovki s natury, in: Krokodil, July 20, 1946, pp. 6-7;
130. I. SEMENOV Nakonetsto ..., in: Krokodil, August 20, 1946, p. 10;
131. V. GORIACHEV Uvazhitel'naia prichina, in: Krokodil, October 20, 1947, p. 9;
132. Val's-obratnik, in: Krokodil, August 10, 1947, p. 5;
133. V. SUKHAREVICH Kak my otdykhali v Saratove, in: Krokodil, August 20, 1947, p. 8;
134. L. SOFERTIST S tantsami ..., in: Krokodil, September 10, 1948, p. 10;
135. Foto-vitrina krokodila, in: Krokodil, February 28, 1949, p. 15;
136. E. SHCHEGLOV Nezamenimyi, in: Krokodil, March 10, 1949, p. 7;
137. A. BAZHENOV Sred' shumnogo bala sluchaino ..., in: Krokodil, August 30, 1949, p. 6;
138. Vy govorili, chto perestroili ..., in: Krokodil, June 10, 1951, p. 15;
139. I. SEMENOV Kuda poiti v vykhodnoi?, in: Krokodil, July 30, 1952, p. 5.
140. FEIERTAG Dzhaz ot Leningrada do Peterburga pp. 68-69.
141. SHEILA FITZPATRICK Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s. New York, Oxford 1999.
142. On postwar living conditions see e.g. ZUBKOVA Russia after the War p. 9-55;
143. GRETA L. BUCHER The Impact of World War II on Moscow Women: Gender Consciousness and Relationships in the Immediate Postwar Period, 1945-1953. PhD diss., Ohio State University 1995;
144. SHEILA FITZPATRICK War and Society in Soviet Context: Soviet Labor before, during, and after World War II, in: International Labor and Working Class History 35 (Spring 1989) pp. 37-52;
145. and SHELEPIN Otchet TsK VLKSM XII s"ezdu p. 3.
146. Cf. HEBDIDGE Subculture.
147. On punks and hippies see PILKINGTON Russia's Youth and Its Culture, passim;
148. and MARK ALLEN SVEDE All You Need is Lovebeads: Latvia's Hippies Undress for Success, in: Style and Socialism. Modernity and Material Culture in Post-War Eastern Europe. Ed. by Susan E. Reid and David Crowley. Oxford, New York 2000, pp. 189-208.
149. On German youth cultures of the 1940s and 50s see THOMAS GROTUM Die Halbstarken. Zur Geschichte einer Jugendkultur der 50er Jahre. Frankfurt, New York 1994, pp. 191-208;
150. KASPAR MAASE Entblößte Brust und schwingende Hüfte. Momentaufnahmen von der Jugend der fünfziger Jahre, in: Männergeschichte - Geschlechtergeschichte. Männlichkeit im Wandel der Moderne. Ed. by Thomas Kühne. Frankfurt, New York 1996, pp. 193-217.
151. JOHN R. GILLIS Geschichte der Jugend. Transl. by Ulrich Herrmann, Lutz Roth. Müchen 1980, p. 277.
152. This information is part of a new post-script in the German edition and not contained in the original Youth and History. Tradition and Change in European Age Relations 1770-Present. New York, London 1974.
153. ROLLIN Twentieth Century Teen Culture p. 181.
154. On the later incorporation of the Elvis Presley model into the style, see KIRSANOVA Stiliagi p. 19.
155. Chuvak, a slang expression, can mean "(young) man," "fellow," "guy," "dude," or "friend." See I. IUGANOV, F. IUGANOVA Russkii Zhargon 60-90-kh godov. Opyt slovaria. Moskva 1994, p. 204;
156. A. FLEGON Za predelami russkikh slovarei. Dopolnitel'nye slova I znacheniia s tsitatami Lenina, Khrushcheva, Stalina, Barkova, Pushkina, Lermontova, Esenina, Maiakovskogo, Solzhenitsyna, Voznesenskogo I dr. London 1973, p. 388;
157. A. FAIN V. Lur'e, Vse v Kaif! [No place] 1991, p. 164;
158. T. G. NIKITINA Tak govorit molodezh'. Slovar' molodezhnogo slenga. 2nd rev. ed. S.-Peterburg 1998, p. 517;
159. I. P. VORIVODA Sbornik zhargonnykh slov I vyrazhenii, upotrebliaemykh v ustnoi I pis'mennoi rechi prestupnym elementom. Alma-Ata 1971, p. 23;
160. IRINA H. CORTEN Vocabulary of Soviet Society and Culture. A Selected Guide to Russian Words, Idioms, and Expressions of the Post-Stalin Era, 1953-1991. Durham, London 1992, p. 35.
161. The origins of the term are obscure. Most likely, chuvak entered the language of the stiliagi through street and tavern slang. According to one dictionary, it originated in Gypsy-jargon (I. IUGANOV, F. IUGANOVA Slovar' russkogo slenga. Slengovye slova I vyrazheniia 60-90-kh godov. Moskva 1997, p. 246).
162. Dal' lists a word which is pretty similar to chuvak and might have later evolved into this term -chuvasha, denoting a disorderly person (neopriatnyi chelovek) (VLADIMIR DAL' Tolkovyi slovar' zhivago velikoruskago iazyka. 2nd. ed. Vol. 4. S.-Peterburg, Moskva 1882, p. 611).
163. VLADIMIR KOZLOVSKII [ed.] Sobranie russkikh vorvorskikh slovarei v chetyrekh tomakh. New York 1983, passim and vol. 3, 133).
164. In later GULag jargon chuvak denoted a young man without connections to the world of criminals, maybe a reflection of an influx of stiliagi into the camps (Slovar' lagerno blatnogo zhargona. Rechevoi I graficheskii portret Sovetskoi tiurmy. Moskva 1992, pp. 282, 262).
165. The evolution of the term stiliaga is equally unclear. STARR credits the journalist Semion Nariniani with inventing it, without giving a reference. He locates this invention after the Tarzan movies had been shown (see below), which is clearly wrong; Red and Hot p. 237.
166. KIRSANOVA Stiliagi p. 73 follows this version.
167. STITES Russian Popular Culture pp. 118-119.
168. Narodnoe obrazovanie, nauka I kul'tura v SSSR. Statisticheskii sbornik. Moskva 1977, p. 7 (population of 178.5 million) and 397 (13.343 million radio receivers).
169. ALEX INKELES Public Opinion in Soviet Russia. A Study in Mass Persuasion. Cambridge, MA 1967, p. 251;
170. STEPHEN KOTKIN Modern Times: The Soviet Union and the Interwar Conjucture, in: Kritika. Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. New Series 2 (Winter 2001) no. 1, p. 122.
171. INKELES Public Opinion in Soviet Russia p. 251.
172. This conforms broadly with Hixson's estimate of five million shortwave receivers. WALTER L. HIXSON Parting the Curtain. Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961. New York 1997, p. 33.
173. For the number of radio sets in 1950 see Narodnoe obrazovanie p. 397.
174. For the estimate of one third of wave receivers see KOTKIN Modem Times p. 122.
175. V. GORIAEV Slushaia zagranitsu, in: Krokodil, February 20, 1947, p. 3.
176. The broadcasts started February 17, 1947; BROOKS Thank You Comrade Stalin p. 210.
177. INKELES Social Change pp. 346-379. The campaign went on at least well into 1951.
178. KABO Road to Australia p. 108.
179. DALLAS Dateline Moscow p. 1952.
180. HIXSON Parting the Curtain p. 33.
181. FEDOR BELOV The History of a Soviet Collective Farm. New York 1955, p. 80.
182. G. SHNEERSON Vrednyi Surrogat iskusstva, in: Sovetskaia muzyka (1948) no. 7, p. 87;
183. GORDEY Visa to Moscow p. 286.
184. His source is an interview he conducted with Harrison Salisbury. On jazz as part of "trophy films" see also PETER KENEZ Cinema and Soviet Society, 1917-1953. New York, Cambrigde 1992, p. 214;
185. In the late 1950s Riga was the center of this underground industry; SVEDE All You Need is Lovebeads p. 195.
186. KIRIL TOMOFF Creative Union: The Professional Organization of Soviet Composers, 1939-1953. Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago 2001, pp. 266-267.
187. TOMOFF Creative Union p. 267.
188. UTA G. POIGER Jazz, Rock, and Rebels. Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 2000, p. 2.
189. ALEXANDER WERTH Russia. The Post-War Years. New York 1971, p. xii.
190. For the part of the foreigners who left accounts of what they saw see HARRY W. NERWOOD TO Russia and Return. An Annotated Bibliography of Travelers' English-Language Accounts of Russia from the Ninth Century to the Present. Ohio 1968, pp. 265-285.
191. For tourists as sources of information about the outside world in 1946 see FAY KING Footloose in the Soviet Union. London 1947, p. 37.
192. In the second half of 1947 a decree made it illegal to give "any kind of information to foreigners." WERTH Russia: The Post-War Years p. 349.
193. Another fashion-conscious frontovik is Vasilii ("Vas'ka") in ZHANNA GAUSNER Vot my I doma ..., in: Zvezda (1947) no. 11, p. 4-106.
194. KING Footloose in the Soviet Union p. 37.
195. On influx and sale of trophy good see also Otchet o rabote Partkollegii Kommissii partiinogo kontrolia pri TsK VKP (b) za iiun' 1939 - 1946 gody, in: RGANI f. 6, op. 6, d. 3, ll. 57-59;
196. KROTKII Montifom;
197. A. SERGEEV Omnibus. Al'bom dlia marok. Moskva 1997,
198. RICHARD STITES Russian Popular Culture. Entertainment and Society since 1900. Cambridge, New York 1992, p. 125.
199. THOMAS J. SLATER The Soviet Union, in: Handbook of Soviet and East European Films and Filmmakers. Ed. Thomas J. Slater. New York, Westport CO, London 1992, p. 16;
200. MICHAL J. STOIL Cinema Beyond the Danube. Metuchen 1974, p. 94;
201. KENEZ Cinema and Soviet Society pp. 211-212, 227.
202. and MAYA TUROVSKAIA The 1930s and 1940s: cinema in context, in: Stalinism and Soviet Cinema. Ed. by Richard Taylor and Derek Spring. London, New York 1993, p. 44.
203. Sovetskie khudozhestvennye fil'my. Izd. Vsesoiuznyi gosudarstvennyi fond kinofil'mov. Annotirovannyi katalog. Moskva 1961, vol. 3, pp. 22-26.
204. Istoriia sovetskogo kino. Moskva 1975, vol. 3, p. 97.
205. KENEZ Cinema & Soviet Society pp. 209-226.
206. Krokodil repeatedly made this a topic of ridicule. See L. BRODATO Zamedlennaia s"emka, in: Krokodil, August 20, 1945, p. 8;
207. Davaite pomechtaem, in: Krokodil, November 30, 1945, pp. 6-7;
208. E. EVGAN U vkhoda v klub, in: Krokodil, September 10, 1947, p. 5;
209. V. PROROKOV Zimnye kartiny, in: Krokodil, December 10, 1947, p. 10;
210. L. SOIFERIST S tochki zreniia zritelia, in: Krokodil, March 10, 1950, p. 12.
211. IRINA KONDAKOVA (ed.) "Tarzan - chelovek ne isporchennyi burzhuaznoi tsivilizatsiei", in: Istochnik (1999) no. 4, p. 99.
212. KONDAKOVA (ed.) Tarzan p. 99.
213. The movie was translated as "The Girl of my Dreams" in Russian; TUROVSKAIA The 1930s and 1940s: cinema in context p. 51.
214. KENEZ Cinema & Soviet Society p. 225 n. 14.
215. Blatant Advertising - Empty Film, in: Cina [Latvia] June 11, 1952 quoted from: Current Digest of the Soviet Press vol. 4 (1952) no. 23, p. 37.
216. On the "tarzan hairstyle" of the stiliagi, see SHELEPIN Otchet TsK VLKSM, p. 3;
217. Cf. SHEILA FITZPATRICK Postwar Soviet Society: The "Return to Normalcy", 1945-1953; in: The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union. Ed. by Susan J. Linz. Totowa, New Jersey 1985, pp. 129-156;
218. JULIE HESSLER Cultured Trade. The Stalinist turn towards consumerism, in: Stalinism. New Directions. Ed. by Sheila Fitzpatrick. London, New York 2000, pp. 182-203.
219. GORSUCH Youth in Revolutionary Russia pp. 116-138.
220. DETLEF PEUKERT Edelweißpiraten, Meuten, Swing. Jugendsubkulturen im Dritten Reich, in: Sozialgeschichte der Freizeit. Untersuchungen zum Wandel der Alltagskultur in Deutschland. Ed. by Gerhard Huck. Wuppertal 1980, pp. 307-327;
221. ARNO KLÖNNE Jugend im Dritten Reich. Die Hitler-Jugend und ihre Gegner. München, Zürich 1995, pp. 228-260;
222. MAASE Entblößte Brust und schwingende Hüfte;
223. POIGER Jazz, Rock, and Rebeis;
224. GROTUM Die Halbstarken. On Bavaria see HUBERT HINGERL Gusgasga Die wahrhaftigen, aber nicht immer erbaulichen Kindheitserinnerungen an eine bewegte Zeit. Kempten 1996, pp. 229-265.
225. TIMOTHY W. RYBACK Rock Around the Block. A History of
226. GILLIS Geschichte der Jugend p. 277;
227. HEINZ BUDE Generationen im 20. Jahrhundert. Historische Einschnitte, ideologische Kehrtwendungen, innere Widersprüche, in: Merkur. Deutsche Zeitschrift für europäisches Denken 54 (July 2000) Nr. 7, pp. 567-579, here p. 573.
228. JOHN W. DOWER Embracing Defeat. Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York, London 1999, pp. 148-154.
229. GEORG SIMMEL Zur Psychologie der Mode. Soziologische Studie, in: IDEM Schriften zur Soziologie. Eine Auswahl. Ed. by Heinz-Jürgen Dahme and Ottheim Remmstedt. Frankfurt 1983, pp. 131-139.
230. On the improved situation of the industrial elite in late Stalinism see ERIC DUSKIN Stalinist Reconstruction and the Confirmation of a New Elite, 1945-1953. New York 2001.
231. The frontoviki in postwar society are the topic of my ongoing dissertation project "A 'Generation of Victors?' Second World War Veterans in the Soviet Union, 1941-1956," The University of Chicago.
232. Although the law on universal military draft from 1939 did not exempt prospective students, a gap between the drafting age and the possible age of graduation from the ten-year school allowed students to circumvent the draft if they entered vuzy right after graduation; NICHOLAS DEWITT Education and Professional Employment in the USSR. Washington 1961, pp. 53-57.
233. THOMAS F. MAGNER The Stiliaga and his Language, in: The Slavic and East European Review 15 (Spring 1957) no. 1, pp. 192-195;
234. MARK G. FIELD Drink and Delinquency in the USSR, in: Problems of Communism (May-June 1955) vol. 4/3, pp. 29-38;
235. IDEM Alcoholism, Crime, and Delinquency in Soviet Society, in: Social Problems vol. 3, (July 1955) no.1, pp. 100-109;
236. For a critique of older treatments of the "Stalinist subject" see ANNA KRYLOVA The Tenacious Liberal Subject in Soviet Studies, in: Kritika Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History New Series 1 (Winter 2000) no. 1, pp. 119-146.
237. JOCHEN HELLBECK Fashioning the Stalinist soul: The Diary of Stepan Podlubnyi (1931-1939), in: JBfGOE 44 (1996) pp. 344-375;
238. IDEM Speaking Out: Languages of Affirmation and Dissent in Stalinist Russia, in: Kritika. Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History New Series 1 (Winter 2000) no. 1, pp. 71-96;
239. IDEM [reply to Sarah Davies], in: Kritika. Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History n.s. 1 (Spring 2000) no. 2, pp. 439-440;
240. IDEM Self-Realization in the Stalinist System: Two Soviet Diaries of the 1930s, in: Russian Modernity. Politics, Knowledge, Practices. Ed. by David L. Hoffmann, Yanni Kotsonis. New York 2000, pp. 221-242;
241. IDEM Writing the Self in the Time of Terror: Alexander Afinogenov's Diary of 1937, in: Self and Story in Russian History. Ed. by Laura Engelstein, Stephanie Sandler. Ithaca, London 2000, pp. 69-93;
242. and IDEM Einleitung, in: Tagebuch aus Moskau 1931-1939. Transl, and ed. by Jochen Hellbeck. München 1996, pp. 9-73.
243. HELLBECK Fashioning the Stalinist Soul p. 372.
244. HELLBECK Speaking Out p. 95.
245. WEINER Making Sense of War esp. pp. 364-385.
246. On the distinction between "hardline" and "softline" policies, and the different prospects of their execution see TERRY D. MARTIN An Affirmative Action Empire: Ethnicity and the Soviet State, 1923-1938. 4 vols. Ph.D. diss. The University of Chicago 1996, vol.1, chap. 2;