The intersection of intimate partner violence against women and HIV/AIDS: a review

International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion

Volumn 15, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 221-231

  Campbell, J C ^a   Baty, M L ^a   Ghandour, R M ^b   Stockman, J K ^b   Francisco, L ^b   Wagman, J ^b  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

HIV AIDS; intimate partner violence; review

Indexed keywords

FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; PARTNER VIOLENCE; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; STATISTICS; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; SPOUSE ABUSE; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

EID: 60849099377     PISSN: 17457300     EISSN: 17457319     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/17457300802423224     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Abrahams, N., Jewkes, R. K., Hoffman, M. and Laubsher, R. 2004. Sexual violence against intimate partners in Cape Town: prevalence and risk factors reported by men. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 82: 330–337.
2. Ackard, D. M., Neumark-Sztainer, D. and Hannan, P. 2003. Dating violence among a nationally representative sample of adolescent girls and boys: associations with behavioral and mental health. Journal of Gender-Specific Medicine, 6 (3): 39–48.
3. Andersson, N., Ho-Foster, A., Mitchell, S., Scheepers, E. and Goldstein, S. 2007. Risk factors for domestic physical violence: national cross-sectional household surveys in eight southern African countries. BMC Women's Health, 7 (11)
4. Beadnell, B., Baker, S. A., Morrison, D. M. and Knox, K. 2000. HIV/STD risk factors for women with violent male partners. Sex Roles, 42 (7): 661–689.
5. Boarts, J. M., Sledjeski, E. M., Bogart, L. M. and Delahanty, D. L. 2006. The differential impact of PTSD and depression on HIV disease markers and adherence to HAART in people living with HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 10 (3): 253–261.
6. Bogart, L. M., Collins, R. L., Cunningham, W., Beckman, R., Golinelli, D.Eisenman, D. 2005. The association of partner abuse with risky sexual behaviors among women and men with HIV/AIDS. AIDS and Behavior, 9 (3): 325–333.
7. Brokaw, J., Fullerton-Gleason, L., Olson, L., Crandall, C., McLaughlin, S. and Sklar, D. 2002. Health status and intimate partner violence: a cross-sectional study. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 39 (1): 31–38.
8. Burke, J., Thieman, L., Gielen, A. C., O'Campo, P. and McDonnell, K. A. 2005. Intimate partner violence, substance use, and HIV among low-income women: taking a closer look. Violence Against Women, 11: 1140–1161.
9. Campbell, J. C. and Lewandowski, L. A. 1997. Mental and physical health effects of intimate partner violence on women and children. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20: 353–374.
10. Campbell, J. C. 2002. Health consequences of intimate partner violence. Lancet, 359 (9314): 1331–1336.
11. Campbell, J. C. and Soeken, K. 1999. Women's responses to battering over time: an analysis of change. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14 (1): 21–40.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2006a. Extent, nature, and consequences of rape victimization: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey, Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2006b. HIV/AIDS surveillance in adolescents and young adults: L265 slide series Retrieved 5 August 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/slides/adolescents/index.htm
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2008. HIV/AIDS surveillance report, 2006 Retrieved 6 August 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/reports/2006report
15. Champion, J. D., Shain, R. N. and Piper, J. 2004. Minority adolescent women with sexually transmitted diseases and a history of sexual or physical abuse. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 25 (3): 293–316.
16. Cohen, M., Deamant, C., Barkan, S., Richardson, J., Young, M.Holman, S. 2000. Domestic violence and childhood sexual abuse in HIV-infected women and women at risk for HIV. American Journal of Public Health, 90: 560–565.
17. Coker, A. L., McKeown, R. E., Sanderson, M., Davis, K. E., Valois, R. F. and Huebner, E. S. 2000. Severe dating violence and quality of life among South Carolina high school students. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 19 (4): 220–227.
18. Coker, A. L., Davis, K., Arias, I., Desai, S., Sanderson, M.Brandt, H. 2002. Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23 (4): 260–268.
19. Collins, R. L., Ellickson, P. L., Orlando, M. and Klein, D. J. 2005. Isolating the nexus of substance use, violence and sexual risk for HIV infection among young adults in the United States. AIDS and Behavior, 9 (1): 73–87.
20. Constantino, R. E., Sekula, L. K., Rabin, B. and Stone, C. 2000. Negative life experiences, depression, and immune function in abused and nonabused women. Biological Research for Nursing, 1 (3): 190–198.
21. Davila, Y. R. 2002. Influence of abuse on condom negotiation among Mexican-American women involved in abusive relationships. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 13 (6): 46–56.
22. Davila, Y. R. and Brackley, M. H. 1999. Mexican and Mexican American women in a battered women's shelter: barriers to condom negotiation for HIV/AIDS prevention. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 20 (4): 333–355.
23. Delahanty, D. L., Bogart, L. M. and Figler, J. L. 2004. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, salivary cortisol, medication adherence, and CD4 levels in HIV-positive individuals. AIDS Care, 16 (2): 247–260.
24. Dude, A. 2007. Intimate partner violence and increased lifetime risk of sexually transmitted infection among women in Ukraine. Studies in Family Planning, 38 (2): 89–100.
25. Dunkle, K., Jewkes, R. K., Brown, H. C., Gray, G. E., McIntryre, J. A. and Harlow, S. D. 2004. Gender-based violence, relationship power, and risk of HIV infection in women attending antenatal clinics in South Africa. The Lancet, 363: 1415–1421.
26. Dunkle, K., Jewkes, R. K., Nduna, M., Levin, J. B., Jama, N.Khuzwayo, N. 2006. Perpetration of partner violence and HIV risk behaviour among young men in the rural Eastern Cape, South Africa. AIDS, 20 (16): 2107–2114.
27. El-Bassel, N., Gilbert, L., Rajah, V., Foleno, A. and Frye, V. 2000. Fear and violence: raising the HIV stakes. AIDS Education and Prevention, 12 (2): 154–170.
28. El-Bassel, N., Gilbert, L., Wu, E., Chang, M., Gomes, C.Vinocur, D. 2007. Intimate partner violence prevalence and HIV risks among women receiving care in emergency departments: implications for IPV and HIV screening. Emergency Medicine Journal, 24: 255–259.
29. El-Bassel, N., Gilbert, L., Wu, E., Go, H. and Hill, J. 2005a. HIV and intimate partner violence among methadone-maintained women in New York City. Social Science Medicine, 61: 171–183.
30. El-Bassel, N., Gilbert, L., Wu, E., Go, H. and Hill, J. 2005b. Relationship between drug abuse and intimate partner violence: a longitudinal study among women receiving methadone. American Journal of Public Health, 95: 465–470.
31. Fennema, J. S.A., Van Ameijden, E. J.C., Coutinho, R. A. and Van Den Hoek, J. A.R. 1995. Validity of self-reported sexually transmitted diseases in a cohort of drug-using prostitutes in Amsterdam: trends from 1986 to 1992. International Journal of Epidemiology, 24 (5): 1034–1041.
32. Fonck, K., Leye, E., Kidula, N., Ndinya-Achola, J. and Temmerman, M. 2005. Increased risk of HIV in women experiencing physical partner violence in Nairobi, Kenya. AIDS and Behavior, 9 (3): 335–339.
33. Foshee, V. A., Linder, G. F., Baumn, K. E., Langwick, S. A., Arriaga, X. B.Heath, J. L. 1996. The Safe Dates Project: theoretical basis, evaluation design, and selected baseline findings. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12 (Suppl. 5): 39–47.
34. Garcia-Linares, M. I., Sanchez-Lorente, S., Coe, C. L. and Martinez, M. 2004. Intimate male partner violence impairs immune control over herpes simplex virus type 1 in physically and psychologically abused women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66 (6): 965–972.
35. Garcia-Moreno, C., Jansen, H. A. F.M., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L. and Watts, C. 2005. WHO Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women, Geneva: World Health Organization.
36. Gielen, A. C., O'Campo, P., Faden, R. R. and Eke, A. 1997. Women's disclosure of HIV status: experiences of mistreatment and violence in an urban setting. Women and Health, 25 (3): 19–31.
37. Gielen, A. C., McDonnell, K. A., Burke, J. G. and O'Campo, P. 2000. Women's lives after an HIV-positive diagnosis: disclosure and violence. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 4 (2): 111–120.
38. Gielen, A. C., Ghandour, R. M., Burke, J. G., Mahoney, P., McDonnell, K. A. and O'Campo, P. 2007. HIV/AIDS and intimate partner violence: intersecting women's health issues in the United States. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 8 (2): 178–198.
39. Gilbert, L., El-Bassel, N., Rajah, V., Foleno, A., Fontdevila, J.Frye, V. 2000. The converging epidemics of mood-altering drug use, HIV, HCV, and partner violence: a conundrum for methadone maintenance treatment. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 67 (5–6): 452–464.
40. Glass, N., Fredland, N., Campbell, J., Yonas, M., Sharps, P. and Kub, J. 2003. Adolescent dating violence: prevalence, risk factors, health outcomes, and implications for clinical practice. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecological, and Neonatal Nursing, 32 (2): 227–238.
41. Golding, J. M. 1999. Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: a meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 14 (2): 99–132.
42. Greenwood, G. L., Relf, M. V., Huang, B., Pollack, L. M., Canchola, J. A. and Catania, J. A. 2002. Battering victimization among a probability-based sample of men who have sex with men (MSM). American Journal of Public Health, 92 (12): 1964–1969.
43. Griffin, M. G., Resick, P. A. and Yehuda, R. 2005. Enhanced cortisol suppression following dexamethasone administration in domestic violence survivors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162: 1192–1199.
44. Haberland, N., Chong, E. L. and Bracken, H. J. 2004. “ A world apart: The disadvantage and social isolation of married adolescent girls ”. New York: Population Council.
45. Halperin, D. T. and Epstein, H. 2007. Why is HIV prevalence so severe in southern Africa? The role of multiple concurrent partnerships and lack of male circumcision: implications for AIDS prevention. The Southern African Journal of HIV Medicine, 26: 19–25.
46. Harrington, K. F., DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., Crosby, R. A., Person, S.Oh, M. K. 2001. Validity of self-reported sexually transmitted diseases among African American female adolescents participating in an HIV/STD prevention intervention trial. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 28 (8): 468–471.
47. Henny, K., Kidder, D. P., Stall, R. and Wolitski, R. J. 2007. Physical and sexual abuse among homeless and unstably housed adults living with HIV: prevalence and associated risks. AIDS and Behavior, 11 (6): 842–853.
48. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (KFF). 2006. HIV/AIDS Policy fact sheet: The HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa Retrieved 10 August 2008, from http://www.kff.org/hivaids/upload/7391-02.pdf
49. Ickovics, J. R., Hamburger, M. E., Vlahov, D., Schoenbaum, E. E., Schuman, P.Boland, R. J. 2001. Mortality, CD4 cell count decline, and depressive symptoms among HIV-seropositive women: longitudinal analysis from the HIV Epidemiology Research Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285 (11): 1466–1474.
50. Jenson, R. and Thornton, R. 2003. Early female marriage in the developing world. Gender and Development, 11 (2): 9–19.
51. Jewkes, R., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Dunkle, K.Khuzwayo, N. 2006a. A cluster randomized-controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of Stepping Stones in preventing HIV infections and promoting safer sexual behaviour amongst youth in the rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: trial design, methods and baseline findings. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 11 (1): 3–16.
52. Jewkes, R., Dunkle, K. L., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N.Khuzwayo, N. 2006b. Factors associated with HIV sero-status in young rural South African women: connections between intimate partner violence and HIV. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35 (6): 1461–1468.
53. Karamagi, C. A., Tumwine, J.K., Tylleskar, T. and Heggenhougen, K. 2006. Intimate partner violence against women in eastern Uganda: implications for HIV prevention. BMC Public Health, 6: 284
54. Kiarie, J. N., Farquhar, C., Richardson, B.A., Kabura, M.N., John, F.N.Nduati, R.W. 2006. Domestic violence and prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. AIDS, 20 (13): 1763–1769.
55. Kimerling, R., Calhoun, K.S., Forehand, R., Asmistead, L., Morse, E.Morse, P. 1999. Traumatic stress in HIV-infected women. AIDS Education and Prevention, 11 (4): 321–330.
56. Koenig, L. J., Whitaker, D.J., Royce, R.A., Wilson, T.E., Callahan, M.R. and Fernandez, M.I. 2002. Violence during pregnancy among women with or at risk for HIV infection. American Journal of Public Health, 92 (3): 367–370.
57. Koenig, M. A., Lutalo, T., Zhao, F., Nalugoda, F., Kiwanuka, N.Wabwire-Mangen, F. 2004. Coercive sex in rural Uganda: prevalence and associated risk factors. Social Science & Medicine, 58 (4): 787–798.
58. Lary, H., Maman, S., Katebalila, M., McCauley, A. and Mbwambo, J. 2004. Exploring the association between HIV and violence: young people's experiences with infidelity, violence and forced sex in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. International Family Planning Perspectives, 30 (4): 200–206.
59. Laughon, K., Gielen, A.C., Campbell, J.C., Burke, J., McDonnell, K. and O'Campo, P. 2007. The relationship among sexually transmitted infection, depression and lifetime violence in a sample of predominantly African American women. Research in Nursing and Health, 30 (4): 413–428.
60. Leserman, J., Jackson, E.D., Petitto, J.M., Golden, R.N., Silva, S.G.Perkins, D.O. 1999. Progression to AIDS: the effects of stress, depressive symptoms, and social support. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61 (3): 397–406.
61. Leserman, J., Petitto, J.M., Gu, H., Gaynes, B.N., Baroso, J.Golden, R.N. 2002. Progression to AIDS, a clinical AIDS condition, and mortality: psychosocial and physiological predictors. Psychological Medicine, 32: 1059–1073.
62. Lichtenstein, B. 2005. Domestic violence, sexual ownership, and HIV risk in women in the American deep south. Social Science & Medicine, 60 (4): 701–711.
63. Liebschutz, J. M., Feinman, G., Sullivan, L.F., Stein, M. and Samet, J. 2000. Physical and sexual abuse in women infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: increased illness and health care utilization. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160: 1659–1664.
64. Maman, S., Campbell, J.C., Sweat, M.D. and Gielen, A.C. 2000. The intersections of HIV and violence: directions for future research and interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 50 (4): 459–478.
65. Maman, S., Mbwambo, J., Hogan, N., Kilonzo, G., Campbell, J.C. and Weiss, E. 2002. HIV-positive women report more lifetime partner violence: findings from a voluntary counseling and testing clinic in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. American Journal of Public Health, 92 (8): 1331–1337.
66. Martin, S. L., Matza, L. S., Kupper, L. L., Thomas, J. C., Daly, M. and Cloutier, S. 1999. Domestic violence and sexually transmitted diseases: the experience of prenatal care patients. Public Health Reports, 114: 262–268.
67. McDonnell, K. A., Gielen, A.C., O'Campo, P. and Burke, J.G. 2005. Abuse, HIV status and health-related quality of life among a sample of HIV positive and HIV negative low income women. Quality of Life Research, 14 (4): 945–957.
68. McDonnell, K. A., Gielen, A. C. and O'Campo, P. 2003. Does HIV status make a difference in the experience of lifetime abuse? Descriptions of lifetime abuse and its context among low-income urban women. Journal of Urban Health, 80 (3): 494–509.
69. Medley, A., Garcia-Moreno, C., McGill, S. and Maman, S. 2004. Rates, barriers and outcomes of HIV serostatus disclosure among women in developing countries: implications for prevention of mother-to-child transmission programmes. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 82 (4): 299–307.
70. Miller, H. G., Cain, V.S., Rogers, S.M., Gribble, J.N. and Turner, C.F. 1999. Correlates of sexually transmitted bacterial infections among U.S. women in 1995. Family Planning Perspectives, 31 (1): 4–9.
71. Molitor, F., Ruiz, J.D., Klausner, J.D. and McFarland, W. 2000. History of forced sex in association with drug use and sexual HIV risk behaviors, infection with STDs, and diagnostic medical care: results from the Young Women Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15 (3): 262–278.
72. Neundorfer, M. M., Harris, P. B., Britton, P. J. and Lynch, D.A. 2005. HIV-risk factors for midlife and older women. Gerontologist, 45 (5): 617–625.
73. NIH (National Institutes of Health), NIAID (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases). 2006. HIV Infection in Women factsheet, Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, NIH.
74. Pettifor, A. E., Measham, D.M., Rees, H.V. and Padian, N.S. 2004. Sexual power and HIV risk, South Africa. Emerging Infectious Disease, 10 (11): 1996–2004.
75. Pico-Alfonso, M. A., Garcia-Linares, M.I., Celda-Navarro, N., Blasco-Ros, C., Echeburh, E. and Martinez, M. 2006. The impact of physical, psychological, and sexual intimate male partner violence on women's mental health: depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder, state anxiety, and suicide. Journal of Womens Health, 15 (5): 599–611.
76. Pico-Alfonso, M. A., Garcia-Linares, M.I., Celda-Navarro, N., Herbert, J. and Martinez, M. 2004. Changes in cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone in women victims of physical and psychological intimate partner violence. Biological Psychiatry, 56 (4): 233–240.
77. Pronyk, P. M., Hargreaves, J. R., Kim, J. C., Morison, L. A., Phetla, G.Watts, C. 2006. Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate-partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: a cluster randomised trial. The Lancet, 368 (9551): 1973–1983.
78. Raj, A., Silverman, J. G. and Amaro, H. 2004. Abused women report greater male partner risk and gender-based risk for HIV: findings from a community-based study with Hispanic women. AIDS Care, 16 (4): 519–529.
79. Rehle, T. M., Shisana, O., Pillay, V., Zuma, K., Puren, A. and Parker, W. 2007. National HIV incidence measures–new insights into the South African epidemic. South African Medical Journal, 97 (3): 194–199.
80. Relf, M. V. 2001. Battering and HIV in men who have sex with men: a critique and synthesis of the literature. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 12 (3): 41–48.
81. Seedat, S., Stein, M. B., Kennedy, C. M. and Hauger, R. L. 2003. Plasma cortisol and neuropeptide Y in female victims of intimate partner violence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28 (6): 796–808.
82. Silverman, J. G., Decker, M.R., Kapur, N.A., Gupta, J. and Raj, A. 2007. Violence against wives, sexual risk and sexually transmitted infection among Bangladeshi men. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 83: 211–215.
83. Sledjeski, E. M., Delahanty, D.L. and Bogart, L.M. 2005. Incidence and impact of posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression on adherence to HAART and CD4+ counts in people living with HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 19 (11): 728–736.
84. Spencer, G. A. and Bryant, S. A. 2000. Dating violence: a comparison of rural, suburban, and urban teens. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27 (5): 302–305.
85. Stein, M. B., Kennedy, C. M. and Twamley, E. W. 2002. Neuropsychological function in female victims of intimate partner violence with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 52 (11): 1079–1088.
86. Teitelman, A. M., Dichter, M. E., Cederbaum, J. A. and Campbell, J. 2007. Intimate partner violence, condom use and HIV risk for adolescent girls: Gaps in the literature and future directions for research and intervention. Journal of HIV/AIDS Prevention in Children & Youth, 8 (2): 65–93.
87. Tjaden, P. G. and Thoennes, N. 2000. Extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence (No. NCJ 181867), Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
88. Tucker, J. S., Wenzel, S. L., Elliott, M. N., Marshall, G. N. and Williamson, S. 2004. Interpersonal violence, substance use, and HIV-related behavior and cognitions: a prospective study of impoverished women in Los Angeles County. AIDS Behavior, 8 (4): 463–474.
89. Turmen, T. 2003. Gender and HIV/AIDS. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 82 (3): 411–418.
90. UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2002. Gender and HIV/AIDS: AIDS epidemic update, Geneva: UNAIDS.
91. UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2007. AIDS epidemic update, Geneva: UNAIDS. Accessed 10 August 2008, from http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf
92. UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2008. Report on the global AIDS epidemic, Geneva: UNAIDS. Accessed 5 August 2008, from http://www. unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_ Global_report.asp
93. Valois, R. F., Oeltmann, J.E., Waller, J. and Hussey, J.R. 1999. Relationship between number of sexual intercourse partners and selected health risk behaviors among public high school adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25 (5): 328–335.
94. Watson, J. M., Cascardi, M., Avery-Leaf, S. and O'Leary, K.D. 2001. High school students' responses to dating aggression. Violence & Victims, 16 (3): 339–348.
95. Wingood, G. M. 2001. Adverse consequences of intimate partner abuse among women in non-urban domestic violence shelters. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 19 (4): 270–275.
96. Wingood, G. M. and DiClemente, R. J. 1997. The effects of an abusive primary partner on the condom use and sexual negotiation practices of African-American women. American Journal of Public Health, 87: 1016–1018.
97. Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R. J. and Raj, A. 2000a. Adverse consequences of intimate partner abuse among women in non-urban domestic violence shelters. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 19 (4): 270–275.
98. Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R. J. and Raj, A. 2000b. Identifying the prevalence and correlates of STDs among women residing in rural domestic violence shelters. Women & Health, 30 (4): 15–26.
99. Wolfe, D. A. and Feiring, C. 2000. Dating violence through the lens of adolescent romantic relationships. Child Maltreatment, 5 (4): 360–363.
100. Woods, S. J. 2000. Prevalence and patterns of posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and post abused women. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 21 (3): 309–324.
101. World Health Organization (WHO). 2008a. Botswana: Epidemiological fact sheet on HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections Accessed 4 August 2008, from http://www.who.int/globalatlas/predefinedReports/EFS2008/full/EFS2008_BW.pdf
102. WHO. 2008b. Kenya: Epidemiological fact sheet on HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections Accessed 4 August 2008, from http://www.who. int/globalatlas/predefinedReports/EFS2008/full/EFS2008_KE.pdf
103. Wyatt, G. E., Myers, H.F., Williams, J.K., Kitchen, C.R., Loeb, T.Carmona, J.V. 2002. Does a history of trauma contribute to HIV risk for women of color? Implications for prevention and policy. American Journal of Public Health, 92 (4): 660–665.
104. Zierler, S., Cunningham, W., Andersen, R., Sliapiro, M., Nakazono, T.Morton, S. 2000. Violence victimization after HIV infection in a US probability sample of adult patients in primary care. American Journal of Public Health, 90 (2): 208–215.