"I've never dealt with a government agency before": Philadelphia's somerset knitting mills project, the local state, and the missed opportunities of urban renewal

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 387-409

  McKee, Guian A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Apparel industry; Deindustrialization; Industrial renewal; Local state; Markets; Philadelphia; Race; Urban policy; Urban renewal

Indexed keywords

DEINDUSTRIALIZATION; INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT; NEIGHBORHOOD; URBAN ECONOMY; URBAN HISTORY; URBAN POLICY; URBAN RENEWAL;

NORTH AMERICA; PENNSYLVANIA; PHILADELPHIA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 60449101327     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: 15526771     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0096144208330394     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. Peter Binzen, "A $7.5 Million Bet on Philadelphia," Philadelphia Bulletin, January 10, 1974.
2. Originally known as "urban redevelopment," the program became known as "urban renewal" following major amendments in 1954. Arnold R. Hirsch, "Federal Housing Policy Between Shelley and Brown," in From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. John F. Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin M. Szylvian (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 214-21.
3. In referring to the "fair market" value in this context, I follow Joseph Heathcott's point that while such language was "the common term used at the time... there is nothing 'fair' in strict liberal economic terms about redevelopment practice, unless one abstracts the public stake and only regards the land delivered to private developers as a tabula rasa." Joseph Heathcott, "'The City Quietly Remade': National Programs and Local Agendas in the Movement to Clear the Slums, 1942-1952," Journal of Urban History 34, no. 2 (January 2008): 240n36.
4. Key works in the voluminous literature on urban renewal include Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Vintage, 1961); Scott Greer, Urban Renewal and American Cities: The Dilemma of Democratic Intervention (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965); James Q. Wilson, ed., Urban Renewal: The Record and the Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1966); Mark I. Gelfand, A Nation of Cities: The Federal Government and Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975); Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1990); Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and the Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993); June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997). For urban renewal in Philadelphia, see David Wallace, "Renaissancemanship," Architectural Forum 26, no. 3 (August 1960): 157-76; Jeanne R. Lowe, Cities in a Race with Time: Progress and Poverty in America's Renewing Cities (New York: Random House, 1967); Kirk R. Petshek, The Challenge of Urban Reform: Policies and Programs in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973); William W. Cutler, III, "The Persistent Dualism: Centralization and Decentralization in Philadelphia, 1854-1975," in The Divided Metropolis: Social and Spatial Dimensions of Philadelphia, 1800-1975, ed. Cutler and Howard Gillette, Jr. (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), 249-84; John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Carolyn Adams, David Bartelt, David Elesh, Ira Goldstein, Nancy Kleniewski, and William Yancey, Philadelphia: Neighborhoods, Division, and Conflict in a Postindustrial City (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991).
5. Implemented in 1975, the Community Development Block Grant program replaced categorical, single-purpose programs such as urban renewal with a broad grant that local governments could allocate as they chose across an array of acceptable housing, infrastructure, and economic development projects. Timothy Conlan, From New Federalism To Devolution: Twenty-Five Years of Intergovernmental Reform (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).
6. City officials referred to the new strategy as the "Central Urban Renewal Area" program. Redevelopment Authority of the City of Philadelphia (RA), Summary Report on the Central Urban Renewal Area (C.U.R.A.) (Philadelphia: City of Philadelphia, March 1956); City Planning Commission (CPC) Comprehensive Planning Division, "Summary Report on the Central Urban Renewal Area (Preliminary Draft)," February 1956, Housing Association of the Delaware Valley Records, Neighborhood and Urban Renewal Area Files, box 1, folder 12, Temple University Urban Archives (TUUA); CPC Staff, "A Suggested Approach to the Problem of Urban Renewal," January 1957, ibid.; Office of the Development Coordinator, "A New Approach to Urban Renewal for Philadelphia," March 1957, General Pamphlet Collection (GPC) 529-3, TUUA, 1-3; William L. Rafsky to Henry C. Beerits, May 9, 1957, Kirk R. Petshek Papers, acc. 202, box 2, Urban Renewal; David Wallace, "Renaissancemanship," 157-76. For the Eastwick urban renewal project, Guian A. McKee, "Liberal Ends Through Illiberal Means: Race, Urban Renewal, and Community in the Eastwick Section of Philadelphia, 1949-1990," Journal of Urban History 27, no. 5 (July 2001): 547-83.
7. For an account of Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation's (PIDC) origins and operations during this period, see Guian A. McKee, The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
8. For the concept of the local state, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "All Politics is Local: The Persistence of Localism in Twentieth Century America," in The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History, ed. Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian Zelizer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 301-26; Philip J. Ethington, "Mapping the Local State," Journal of Urban History 27, no. 5 (July 2001): 686-702; Eric H. Monkkonen, The Local State: Public Money and American Cities (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). For overviews of the extensive literature on the racial limitations of the New Deal state, see Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Norton, 2005); Carol A. Horton, Race and the Making of American Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).All Politics is Local: The Persistence of Localism in Twentieth Century America," in The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History, ed. Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian Zelizer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 301-26; Philip J. Ethington, "Mapping the Local State," Journal of Urban History 27, no. 5 (July 2001): 686-702; Eric H. Monkkonen, The Local State: Public Money and American Cities (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). For overviews of the extensive literature on the racial limitations of the New Deal state, see Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Norton, 2005); Carol A. Horton, Race and the Making of American Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
9. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005); S. A. Paolontonio, Rizzo: The Last Big Man in Big City America (Philadelphia: Camino Books, 1993); McKee, The Problem of Jobs.
10. McKee, The Problem of Jobs, chap. 3.
11. Robert B. Semple, "Signing of Model Cities Bill Ends Long Struggle to Keep It Alive," New York Times, November 4, 1964, 1; Charles M. Haar, Between the Idea and the Reality: A Study in the Origin, Fate and Legacy of the Model Cities Program (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975); Nelson Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 402-3; Irving Bernstein, Guns Or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 458-60; Alice O'Connor, "Swimming Against the Tide: A Brief History of Federal Policy in Poor Communities," in Urban Problems and Community Development, ed. William T. Dickens and Ronald F. Ferguson (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999), 104-5.
12. Committee on Citizen Participation, "Minutes," January 30, 1967, reprinted in Patrick J. McLaughlin, "Application to the Department of Housing and Urban Development by the Honorable James H.J. Tate, Mayor, City of Philadelphia, for a Grant to Plan a Comprehensive City Demonstration Project," March 3, 1967, GPC, box 258-12, TUUA, IV:13; Erasmus Kloman, "Citizen Participation in the Philadelphia Model Cities Program: Retrospect and Prospect," Public Administration Review 32 (September 1972): 402-3.
13. McLaughlin, "Application to the Department of Housing and Urban Development"; Joseph Oberman, "A Proposal For Economic Development Submitted to the Model Cities Administration of Philadelphia," October 1969, GPC, box 791-4 (vol. 4), TUUA. For Edmund Bacon, see Alexander Garvin, "Philadelphia's Planner: A Conversation with Edmund Bacon," Journal of Planning History 1, no. 1 (February 2002): 58-78; Christopher Klemek, "Urbanism as Reform: Modernist Planning and the Crisis of Urban Liberalism in Europe and North America, 1945-1975" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2004), 202-13.
14. The complex narrative of racial conflict in Philadelphia's Model Cities program lies beyond the scope of this article. More complete treatments may be found in Matthew J. Countryman, Up South; and in McKee, The Problem of Jobs. For a useful collection of participant accounts, see "Maximum Feasible Manipulation," "The View from City Hall," and Kloman, "Citizen Participation in the Philadelphia Model Cities Program," all in Public Administration Review 32 (September 1972): 377-408.
15. Kendall Wilson, "Goldie Watson, City's First Black Deputy Mayor," Philadelphia Tribune, June 3, 1994; "5 Teachers Suspended," New York Times, February 20, 1954; "Teacher Case Decline," New York Times, December 6, 1954; Mike Mallowe, "The $75 Million Misunderstanding," Philadelphia Magazine, February 1973.
16. City of Philadelphia, "Philadelphia Model Cities Program Handbook: The Plan Is You!," n.d. [April 1973], GPC, box 597-1, 7.
17. Mallowe, "The $75 Million Misunderstanding," 76-77, 177-79. For summaries of the economic program's operation up to 1972, Walter D'Alessio, interview by Walter M. Phillips, June 7, 1977, transcript, Walter M. Phillips Oral History Project (POHP), box 3, TUUA, 13; Office of the City Controller, "Model Cities Economic Development Project," December 11, 1972, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, RG 60-2.5, box A-3621, City Archives (CA), 7.
18. Ibid., 3.
19. D'Alessio, interview by Phillips, 13-14; Walter D'Alessio, "Memo To: Alec Bastos; Subject: Possible Projects for the Expenditure of Model Cities Economic Development," May 7, 1973, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, RG 60-2.6, box A-3426, PIDC, CA; PIDC, News Release, November 1974, Greater Philadelphia Partnership Records, acc. 612, box 12, PIDC Correspondence Folder, TUUA, 1-2. For Gola's additional charges and the federal action, Mallowe, "The $75 Million Misunderstanding," 74-76.
20. Joseph Oberman, "A Proposal for Economic Development," 32-34; PIDC, "Minutes of the Executive Committee Meeting of the Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation," April 13, 1971, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, RG 60-2.5, box A-3837, PIDC, CA, 3.
21. D'Alessio, interview by Phillips, 13-14. Also, Walter D'Alessio, "Memo To: Alec Bastos," May 7, 1973; D'Alessio to Goldie Watson, Director, Model Cities Administration, August 1, 1973, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, ibid.; PIDC, "Proposed Industrial Development Projects of Direct Benefit To Residents of Model Cities," August 1, 1973, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, ibid.
22. For a summary of PIDC's twenty-four transactions in the Model Cities area between 1965 and 1970, Robert H. Lurcott, "Memo to Jan Vegas; Subject: Economic Development Section of Workable Program Submission [draft materials, table 6 and appendix 23]," October 7, 1971, Department of Commerce, Industrial Development Division, Project Files 1953-1970, RG 64.18, box A-5198, Planning Commission, CA.
23. "$7.5 Million Mill Planned on Spring Garden St.," Philadelphia Bulletin, January 10, 1974; Peter H. Binzen, "A $7.5 Million Bet on Philadelphia; Knitting Company Decides to Stay in Town, Philadelphia Bulletin, January 10, 1974; Daniel F. O'Leary, "PIDC Deal Makes Room For 2,500 Jobs; Merck Building Converted for Lease to Industries," Philadelphia Bulletin, June 30, 1963.
24. Prior to urban renewal, the Callowhill East/Franklin area constituted a mixed-use area of mostly aging and often dilapidated buildings; industrial uses accounted for 27.4 percent of nonstreet acreage, commercial uses for 23.3 percent, mixed industrial and commercial for 4.5 percent, residential for 17.3 percent, railroads for 16.4, vacant land for 8.7 percent (because of a high number of condemnations and demolitions), and institutional for 2.4 percent. A 1965 estimate for the Urban Renewal Administration found that clearance of the area would displace 129 nonwhite and 48 white families; 21 of the white families and 105 of the nonwhite families would be eligible for public housing. In 1957, housing in the area was described as "extremely inadequate in size, facilities and structural condition and is overcrowded. The land coverage is extremely high and interior rooms are lighted only from narrow shafts or courts... Many houses are built on narrow and shallow sites, often less than 200 square feet, and frequently have but one room on a floor. Many have no inside toilet facilities and even no running water." Industrial and commercial facilities were characterized as "housed in obsolete buildings which have been expanded piecemeal as firms expanded," with more than two thousand of such structures consisting of nonfireproof buildings built before 1910. Philadelphia City Planning Commission, "Callowhill: A Proposal for a Centrally-located Industrial Urban Renewal Area," Kirk R. Petshek Papers, acc. A-202, box 4, Industry Documents, TUUA, 3-5; Redevelopment Authority of the City of Philadelphia, "Urban Renewal Plan for the Franklin Urban Renewal Area," July 1964, revised January 28, 1965, GPC 457-3, TUUA, 1.
25. The low interest PIDC-FC financing reduced Somerset's costs from $2.25 per square foot to $1.60 per square foot. Walter D'Alessio to Donald Cutler, May 29, 1973, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, RG 60-2.6, box A-3426, PIDC, CA, 1-2; D'Alessio to Watson, August 1, 1973; PIDC, "Proposed Industrial Development Projects of Direct Benefit To Residents of Model Cities," August 1, 1973, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, ibid.; D'Alessio, "Memo To: Alec Bastos," May 7, 1973, 2; PIDC, News Release, November 1974, 2; D'Alessio, interview by Phillips, 15; PIDC, "1973 Annual Report," Greater Philadelphia Movement Records, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Garment Industry Development-1973, TUUA, 2; John T. Gillespie, "Firm Flouts a Trend, Eyes Expansion in City," Philadelphia Bulletin, April 25, 1977.
26. For an indication that poverty status and the racial makeup of nearby neighborhoods influenced PIDC policy during this period, D'Alessio, interview by Walter M. Phillips, 13-15.
27. Harold A. Barker, "Memo To: Philip Carroll and Anthony Zecca; Subject: PIDC Executive Committee Meeting of August 7, 1973," August 8, 1973, Mayor's Correspondence and Files, RG 60-2.6, box A-3426, PIDC, CA; "$7.5 Million Mill Planned on Spring Garden St.," Philadelphia Bulletin, January 10, 1974; PIDC, News Release, November 1974. Quotation from Binzen, "A $7.5 Million Bet on Philadelphia," Philadelphia Bulletin, January 10, 1974.
28. Bob Schwabach, "Knitting Mill Paints Its Walls To Say 'We Care,'" Philadelphia Inquirer, February 20, 1975.
29. In 1992, Phillips-Van Heusen moved Somerset's production to Puerto Rico. Faced with a steep drop in business, the company sought to lower its costs by consolidating operations (it had closed the New Jersey facility in 1990) and cutting labor costs. A union leader remarked that "even if we agreed to give up 50 percent of wages, it wouldn't have been enough to offset the loss of business and customers." Raymond A. Berens, "Apparel Tenants Buy 9-Story Building for Garment Center," Philadelphia Bulletin, November 24, 1974; John T. Gillespie, "Firm Flouts a Trend, Eyes Expansion in City; 100 More Jobs Seen At Somerset Mills," Philadelphia Bulletin, April 25, 1977; Tawn Nhan, "The Local Apparel Industry Unravels," Philadelphia Inquirer, May 4, 1992; Julia C. Martinez, "The Red Cross, Urban Pioneer: Spring Garden Street Awaits a Transfusion," Philadelphia Inquirer, September 20, 1992.
30. Pamela Haines, "Clothing and Textiles: The Departure of an Industry," in Community and Capital in Conflict: Plant Closings and Job Loss, ed. J. C. Raines, L. E. Berson, and D. M. Gracie (Philadelphia: Temple University Press), 211-19; Edward B. Shils, "Philadelphia's Apparel Industry: A Digest of the Findings and Recommendations of the Industry Study," May 1966, GPC, box 518-12, TUUA, 3-11, 15-21; "City's Apparel and Textile Industry Clings to Hope of Better Days Ahead," Focus: Philadelphia's Independent Business Newsweekly, September 8, 1971, Greater Philadelphia Movement Records (GPMR), acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Apparel Industry-1971, TUUA, 1, 12; Shils to William L. Rafsky, October 21, 1971, GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, ibid.; Rafsky, "Memo to: Files; Subject: November 18 Meeting re Apparel Industry," November 24, 1971, GPMR, ibid.; "The Garment Industry in Philadelphia: Why We Need It; How We Improve It; A Challenge for the '70s," n.d. [1973], GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Garment Industry Development-1973, TUUA, 1-2; [Joseph Egan, James Mahoney, and James Martin], "Proposal for a Comprehensive Program of Assistance to the Garment Industry and Garment employment Trades for Philadelphia," ibid., 1-4.
31. Apparel industry employment had peaked at 54,000 in 1948. Most of the loss prior to the 1960s derived from the near total decline of the local hosiery industry. In a 1966 survey of 304 firms, Edward Shils determined that 88.8 percent of apparel industry workers lived within the city limits and that African Americans constituted 50 percent of the workforce. Shils, "Philadelphia's Apparel Industry," 15-23; [Egan, Mahoney, and Martin], "Proposal for a Comprehensive Program of Assistance, " 1, 3; "A Proposal for a GPM Action Project," September 22, 1970, GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Apparel Industry-1971, TUUA. For the employment statistics, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers, 1967 Vol. III, Area Statistics, Part 2, Pennsylvania (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1971), 39-38; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers, 1972 Vol. III, Area Statistics, Part 2, Pennsylvania (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), 39-38. On female Puerto Rican garment workers in Philadelphia, Carmen Theresa Whalen, From Puerto Rico to Philadelphia: Puerto Rican Workers and Postwar Economies (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 142-52.
32. Shils, "Philadelphia's Apparel Industry," 4-5, 8-14; PIDC, [ "A Proposal for a Garment Center at... "], 1967, RG 60-2.5, box A-4566, PIDC, CA; William Zucker, "Memorandum on Philadelphia's Apparel Industry," n.d. [1971], GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Apparel Industry-1971, TUUA, 1; Shils to Rafsky, October 21, 1971.
33. Zucker, "Memorandum on Philadelphia's Apparel Industry," n.d. [1971], 3; [Egan, Mahoney, and Martin], "Proposal for a Comprehensive Program of Assistance, 1, 3, 7-8; "The Garment Industry in Philadelphia," n.d. [1973], 3-6; James Martin to Stephen S. Gardner, May 1, 1973, GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Garment Industry Development-1973; Russell Byers, "Memorandum To: GPM Executive Committee; Subject: Garment Industry Proposal," May 8, 1973, GPMR, ibid.; "Confirmed Membership of the Philadelphia Garment Industry Board as of June 26, 1973," GPMR, ibid.; City of Philadelphia, Office of the Mayor, "News Release: Remarks By Mayor Frank L. Rizzo; Garment Industry Center," June 28, 1973, GPMR, ibid.; PIDC, "1973 Annual Report," [unpaginated-Special Projects section]; Shils to Rafsky, October 21, 1971, 2.
34. Office of the Mayor, "News Release: Remarks By Mayor Frank L. Rizzo; Garment Industry Center," June 28, 1973, 2; City of Philadelphia, Office of the Mayor, "News Release: Remarks By Mayor Frank L. Rizzo; Garment Square Day," September 18, 1973, GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Garment Industry Development-1973; PIDC, "News Release," November 1974, 2-3; [Egan, Mahoney, and Martin], "Proposal for a Comprehensive Program of Assistance," 5-6; "The Garment Industry in Philadelphia," n.d. [1973], 3-5; PIDC, "Annual Report 1975," POHP, box 3, Walter D'Alessio, TUUA, 12-13.
35. Walter D'Alessio, "Memorandum To: The Worriers; Subject: Community Development Block Grant Program-Economic Development," April 13, 1976, Greater Philadelphia Partnership Records, acc. 307, 311, 382 (Dec. '75-Oct. '77), box 7, PIDC, TUUA, 1-2; PIDC, "Model Cities Land Development Program" and "City Wide Land Development Program," n.d. [attached to 4/13/76 D'Alessio memo], Greater Philadelphia Partnership Records, ibid.; City of Philadelphia, "The Housing and Community Development Act of 1974," Development News, October-November 1974, GPC box 585-13, TUUA, 1-3. For a broad assessment of community development block grants in Philadelphia, Greater Philadelphia Partnership, "Philadelphia's Community Development Block Grant Program: Its Past and Future," March 1977, GPC 451-3, TUUA, 9-17, 73-74; McKee, "Liberal Ends Through Illiberal Means."
36. During the 1980s, PIDC continued such efforts through its participation in the federal Urban Development Action Grant, Mortgage Loan, and SBA 504 loan programs and the Pennsylvania Enterprise Zone and Capital Loan Fund programs. With the resulting funds, PIDC developed inner-city industrial projects in such areas as the Parkside section of West Philadelphia, Hunting Park, and along the American Street corridor. Between 1983 and 1988, the American Street project alone created approximately 1,700 new jobs. PIDC, Annual Reports, 1983, 1986, 1988, Free Library of Philadelphia, Government Documents Collection, Cities P53-1320 1983, 1986, 1988; PIDC, Annual Report, 1988, 13.
37. Andrew Feffer, "The Land Belongs to the People: Reframing Urban Protest in Post-Sixties Philadelphia," in The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America, ed. Van Gosse and Richard Moser (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 67-99.
38. Thomas F. Luce and Anita A. Summers, Local Fiscal Issues in the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), 106, 112-13, 127-29; Pennsylvania Economy League- Eastern Division, Factbook on the Philadelphia Economy 1995 (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Economy League, November 1995), iii, 1-2, 21-24; Paolontonio, Rizzo, 203-4, 237-40; Carolyn Teich Adams, The Constrained City, Integrative Paper Series of Philadelphia: Past, Present and Future, paper 3 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, School of Public and Urban Policy, 1982), 1-2; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, City and County Data Books 1972 and 1983 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1972, 1983).
39. Memo to Steve Gardner, n.d. [1973], GPMR, acc. 294, 296, 307, 311, box 6A, Garment Industry Development-1973, TUUA, 2-3; [Egan, Mahoney, and Martin], "Proposal for a Comprehensive Program of Assistance," 9.
40. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers, 1982 Vol. III, Area Statistics, Part 2, Pennsylvania (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1985), PA-90; U.S. Census Bureau, 1997 Economic Census; Manufacturing; Geographic Area Series: Pennsylvania (Washington, DC: Census Bureau, 2000), 111.
41. Although the 1949 Housing Act formally initiated the federal urban redevelopment program, its restrictions on nonresidential renewal made industrial projects difficult, if not impossible, to undertake.
42. The Office of Economic Opportunity's Special Impact Program implemented such a policy on a very limited basis during the late 1960s.