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mm) - 1.22; n = 27, r = 0.87]. Using this equation, the smallest hesperocyonine in our sample weighed about 2 kg and the largest 26 kg. The same values for the borophaginae are 2 kg and 42 kg.
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10
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7544247384
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note
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1 length; relative grinding area = square root of upper molar grinding area/upper carnassial length. All measurements were made with calipers by X.W.
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7544225306
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Current researchers often define Cope's rule as a net tendency toward size increase throughout a clade's entire history and across all of its lineages (21, 30). Our conclusions do not depend on the satisfaction of this strict definition, only on whether canid clades were dominated by species of large body size and hypercarnivorous diets relatively late in their histories. Nevertheless, based on the sample of phylogenetically independent ancestor/descendant size transitions implied by the full phylogenies for each clade (2, 3), in both subfamilies, numbers and magnitudes of size increases significantly exceeded size decreases [hesperocyonines, 11+, 2-, P = 0.02 (sign test), P = 0.01 (Wilcoxon signed rank test); borophagines, 16+, 6-, P = 0.05 (sign test), P = 0.04 (Wilcoxon signed rank test); species sizes are based on the average length of the first lower molar; Wilcoxon tests are based on log (base 10)-transformed data].
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The mean frequency of each canid species in individual fossil collections where it occurs was based on the number of canid specimens reported, by locality (3,4), for those species used in the PCA. These values were divided by the total number of specimens collected from the respective localities, when available. Only collections totaling ≥15 specimens were used. Sources for total specimen numbers included some literature compilations (31, 32), direct counts of museum specimens, and numbers of specimens reported in online museum catalogs (Univ. of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley, CA; Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL; American Museum of Natural History, New York; Yale Peabody Museum, New Haven, CT). The catalog sources likely sometimes inflate the canid frequencies by not including uncataloged material, but in cases where comparisons could be made, the values derived from the three sources were in rough agreement. The mean for each species is based on from 1 to 24 collections (average, 5.3) and represents a total of 233 species occurrences.
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7544246852
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For helpful comments on the manuscript, we thank P. Adam, A. R. Friscia, J. Meachan, J. Samuels, R. H. Tedford, R. K. Wayne, M. Webster, participants in the UCLA Paleobiology journal club, and two anonymous reviewers.
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