Is pandemic flu a security threat?

Survival

Volumn 51, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 191-214

  Enemark, Christian ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 60349096612     PISSN: 00396338     EISSN: 14682699     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00396330902749798     Document Type: Article

References (97)

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2. Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza (Washington DC: Homeland Security Council, 2006), p. 18.
3. 'The National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom: Security in an Interdependent World', United Kingdom Cabinet Office, 19 March 2008, p. 14, http://interactive.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/documents/security/ national_security_strategy.pdf.
4. Australian Department of Health and Ageing, Australian Health Management Plan for Pandemic Influenza (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2006), p. 19, http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/ publishing.nsf/Content/ohppandemic-ahmppi.htm/$file/AHMPPI.pdf.
5. Ibid., p. 51.
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10. World Health Organisation, WHO Global Influenza Preparedness Plan: The Role of WHO and Recommendations for National Measures Before and During Pandemics (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2005), p. 2.
11. World Health Organisation, 'Ten Things You Need to Know about Pandemic Influenza', 14 October 2005, http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/ pandemic10things/en/.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Christopher J.L. Murray, Alan D. Lopez, Brian Chin, Dennis Feehan and Kenneth H. Hill, 'Estimation of Potential Global Pandemic Influenza Mortality on the Basis of Vital Registry Data from the 1918-20 Pandemic: A Quantitative Analysis', The Lancet, vol. 368, no. 9554, 23 December 2006, pp. 2211-18.
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16. Notwithstanding these findings, it is important to acknowledge that mutation of H5N1 into a pandemic form is not certain to occur. At present, the virus attaches to cells in the lower respiratory tract of humans. It is possible that a feature of this particular virus may prevent it from ever attaching to cells in the upperrespiratory tract and thus transmitting easily to others through coughing and sneezing.
17. See Debby van Riel, Vincent J. Munster, Emmie de Wit, Guus F. Rimmelzwaan, Ron A.M. Fouchier, Ab D.M.E. Osterhaus and Thijs Kuiken, 'H5N1 Virus Attachment to Lower Respiratory Tract', Science, vol. 312, no. 5772, 21 April 2006, p. 399.
18. US Department of Health and Human Services, 'Community Strategy for Pandemic Influenza Mitigation', February 2007, http://www.pandemicflu.gov/plan/community/commitigation.html.
19. World Health Organisation, A Safer Future, p. 16.
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24. World Health Organisation, A Safer Future, p. 5.
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26. Recent publications include Susan Wright, 'Terrorists and Biological Weapons: Forging the Linkage in the Clinton Administration', Politics and the Life Sciences, vol. 25, no. 1-2, March-September 2006, pp. 57-115
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29. The use of influenza virus for biological-warfare purposes, highly unlikely but not impossible, is beyond the scope of this article.
30. United Nations Security Council, UNSCR 1308, 17 July 2000, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/536/02/PDF/N0053602.pdf.
31. See, for example, P.W. Singer, 'AIDS and International Security', Survival, vol. 44, no. 1, Spring 2002, pp. 145-58
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34. Alan Dupont, East Asia Imperilled: Transnational Challenges to Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 212-27
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45. Ole Waever, 'Securitization and Desecuritization', in Ronnie D. Lipschutz (ed.), On Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), p. 52.
46. Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza p. 2.
47. Ibid., p. 1.
48. Paul Slovic, Baruch Fischhoff and Sarah Lichtenstein, 'Facts and Fears: Understanding Perceived Risk', in Richard C. Schwing and Walter A. Albers (eds), Societal Risk Assessment: How Safe is Safe Enough? (New York: Plenum, 1980), p. 209.
49. Ibid., p. 211.
50. World Health Organisation, World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2002), p. 32.
51. Jessica Stern, 'Dreaded Risks and the Control of Biological Weapons', International Security, vol. 27, no. 3, Winter 2002-03, p. 102.
52. Erik Eckholm, 'SARS is the Spark for a Riot in China', New York Times 29 April 2003, p. A1.
53. Peter Chalk, 'Disease and the Complex Processes of Securitization in the Asia-Pacific', in Mely Caballero-Anthony, Ralf Emmers and Amitav Acharya (eds), Non-Traditional Security in Asia: Dilemmas in Securitization (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), p. 127.
54. Stewart Tendler, 'Flu Doctors to be Given Police Guards', Times Online, 2 November 2005, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/ 0,,25149-1853843,00.html.
55. Department of Defense, Department of Defense Implementation Plan for Pandemic Influenza (Washington DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense, 2006), p. 16.
56. 'Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza', p. 153.
57. Susan Peterson, 'Epidemic Disease and National Security', Security Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, December 2002, p. 51.
58. Rebecca Katz and Daniel A. Singer, 'Health and Security in Foreign Policy', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 85, no. 3, March 2007, p. 233.
59. Colin McInnes and Kelley Lee, 'Health, Security and Foreign Policy', Review of International Studies, vol. 32, no. 1, January 2006, p. 11.
60. Stefan Elbe, 'Should HIV/AIDS Be Securitized? The Ethical Dilemmas of Linking HIV/AIDS and Security', International Studies Quarterly, vol. 50, no. 1, March 2006, pp. 119-44.
61. Ibid., p. 120.
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63. Elbe, 'Should HIV/AIDS Be Securitized?', p. 128.
64. Katz and Singer, 'Health and Security in Foreign Policy', p. 234.
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67. Elbe, 'Should HIV/AIDS Be Securitized?', p. 128.
68. Ibid.
69. US Department of Health and Human Services, 'Community Strategy for Pandemic Influenza Mitigation'.
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75. World Health Organisation Writing Group, 'Nonpharmaceutical Interventions for Pandemic Influenza, International Measures', Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol. 12, no. 1, January 2006, p. 83.
76. Ibid., p. 88.
77. See, for example, Athol Yates, 'Close Airports or Pandemic Influenza Will Fly In', Australian Homeland Security Research Centre, August 2007, http://www.homelandsecurity.org.au/files/airport_closure_flu.pdf.
78. WHO Writing Group, 'Nonpharmaceutical Interventions for Pandemic Influenza, International Measures', p. 86.
79. 'Comments from the Center for Biosecurity of UPMC on the National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza: Implementation Plan', Biosecurity and Bioterrorism, vol. 4, no. 3, 2006, p. 322.
80. Peter Caley, Niels G. Becker and David J. Philp, 'The Waiting Time for Inter-Country Spread of Pandemic Influenza', PLoS ONE, vol. 2, no. 1, art. e143, January 2007.
81. 'International Health Regulations: The Challenges ahead', The Lancet vol. 369, no. 9575, 26 May 2007, p. 1763.
82. Daniel Deudney, 'The Case against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security', Millennium, vol. 19, no. 3, December 1990, pp. 462-65.
83. Ibid., p. 475.
84. Peterson, 'Epidemic Disease and National Security', p. 46.
85. Harley Feldbaum, Preeti Patel, Egbert Sondorp and Kelley Lee, 'Global Health and National Security: The Need for Critical Engagement', Medicine, Conflict and Survival, vol. 22, no. 3, July-September 2006, p. 196.
86. World Health Organisation, A Safer Future, p. 66.
87. World Health Organisation, 'Constitution', 1946, http://www.who.int/ entity/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf.
88. World Health Organisation, '58th World Health Assembly, International Health Regulations (2005)', 2005, http://www.who.int/csr/ihr/ WHA58-en.pdf.
89. Yanzhong Huang, 'Mortal Peril: Public Health in China and its Security Implications', Health and Security Series (Washington DC: Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute, 2003), p. 69.
90. World Health Organisation, 'Summary of Probable SARS Cases with Onset of Illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003', 26 September 2003, http://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/table2003_09_23/en/.
91. Dennis Normile, 'Indonesia to Share Flu Samples Under New Terms', Science, vol. 316, no. 5821, 6 April 2007, p. 37.
92. John Aglionby and Andrew Jack, 'Indonesia Blames WHO for Bird Flu Deal', Business Day Online, 8 February 2007, http://businessdayonline.com/?c=125&a=11127.
93. 'Indonesia Edges Closer to Sharing Bird-Flu Samples', Nature, vol. 450, no. 7170, 26 November 2007, p. 599.
94. US Department of State, 'US Government Support to Combat Avian and Pandemic Influenza', 4 June 2007, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/scp/ 86190.htm.
95. Margaret Harris Cheng, 'Cash Boost for Avian Influenza Exceeds Expectations', The Lancet, vol. 367, no. 9507, 28 January 2006, p. 289.
96. 'Chair's Summary', New Delhi International Ministerial Conference on Avian and Pandemic Influenza, December 2007, available at http://www.delmincon.com/.
97. World Health Organisation, 'World Health Assembly Closes', 23 May 2007, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2007/wha02/en/index.html. Implementing the WHO plan to increase the global supply of vaccine is estimated to cost $3-10bn: World Health Organisation, Global Pandemic Influenza Action Plan to Increase Vaccine Supply (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2006).