Islamic endowments and the land economy in Singapore the genesis of an ethical capitalism, 1830-2007

South East Asia Research

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 343-403

  Brown, Rajeswary Ampalavanar ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Hadhramis; Islamic finance; Land; Religion and capitalism; Religious minority; Secular state

Indexed keywords

CAPITALISM; CULTURAL INFLUENCE; CULTURAL LANDSCAPE; CULTURAL TRADITION; ETHICS; FINANCIAL SYSTEM; ISLAMISM; LAND MARKET;

ASIA; EURASIA; SINGAPORE [SOUTHEAST ASIA]; SOUTHEAST ASIA;

EID: 59749106014     PISSN: 0967828X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5367/000000008787133445     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Barbara Metcalf (1996), Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe: Comparative Studies in Muslim Societies, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, p xii.
2. George Stauth (1992), 'Slave trade, multiculturalism and Islam in colonial Singapore: a sociological note on Christian Snouck Hurgronge's 1891 article on slave trade in Singapore', Southeast Asia Journal of Social Science, Vol 20, No 1, pp 67-79. For an excellent analysis of these ambiguities in Islam, see Charles Tripp (2006), Islam and the Moral Economy.' The Challenge of Capitalism, CUP, Cambridge.
3. Endowments are divided into two categories: public i Khayri or Am] and private i Ahli or Khas] all of which hold family beneficiaries. But in both, the ultimate beneficiary is a charitable religious institution. See M. Hoexter (1998), Endowments, Rules and Community, Waqf al-Haramayn in Ottoman Algiers, Brill, Leiden, pp 8-9. A waqf is a highly flexible institution because it is not mentioned in the Qur'an but only in the Sunnah of the Prophet.
4. Straits Settlements Law Report [hereafter SSLR] (1927), pp 45-57. SSLR (1935 and 1936), pp 193-194. SSLR (1941-42), pp 59-68.
5. Doumani, B. (1998), 'Writing family: waqf, property and gender in Tripoli and Nablus, 1800-1860', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 40, No 1, pp 1, 7.
6. Doumani, B. (2003), Family History in the Middle East: Household, Properties, and Gender, SUNY Press, Albany, NY.
7. SSLR (1928), June, pp 101-107. Siraj Sait and Hilary Lim (2006), Land, Law and Islam: Property and Human Rights in the Muslim World, Zed Books, London, pp 133-146.
8. National Heritage Board National Archives, Singapore. Interview with Alwee Alkaff, 20 January 1982, Oral History Unit.
9. SSLR (1921), No 2, May, pp 199-237. SSLR (1928), June, pp 188-194;
10. Malayan Law Journal, No 1, 26 April 1991. Singapore Legal Suit No 273 of 1921, Appeal No 2 of 1921 in SSLR (1921), May, pp 199-237.
11. Singapore Legal Suit No 273 of 1921, Appeal No 2 of 1921 in SSLR (1921), May, pp 199-237.
12. Syed Mohamed Alkaff and Sayed Abubakar Alkaff as litigants in January 1953. Malayan Law Journal (MLJ), No 19, 1953, pp 193-195.
13. MLJ, No 19, January 1963, p 68. Issue over use of income carned by waqf in Singapore for charities in Tarim,
14. Seiyun Doa. See also SSLR (1941-42), pp 59-68. Dispute between Syed Omar bin Shaik Alkaff and Syed Abdul Rahman bin Shaik Alkaff, both of the Shaikh Alkaff family. Singapore state's aggressive seizure of land from Alkaff family waqf in October 1980, 1984, reported in Malayan Law Journal, No 1, 1986, p 115.
15. See also MLJ (1991), No 1, p 453. Formal disputes within the Alkaff family in 1986 weakened their case against the PAP government
16. Court Case, 17 October 1953, in Malayan Law Journal, No 20, 1954, p 8.
17. Gilsenan, M. (2003), 'A bundle of rights? Property, family and the state in colonial Singapore', paper for Workshop, Diaspora and Muslim Financial Institutions in Asia, 5 December, Singapore. Islamoglu, Huri (2000), 'Property as a contested domain: a revaluation of the Ottoman Land Code of 1858', in Roger Owen, ed, New Perspectives on Property and Land in the Middle East, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 3-62.
18. Powers, D. S. (1999), 'The Islamic endowment (waqf)', Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, Vol 32, p 4. Layish, A. (1997), 'The family waqf and the shari'a Law of Succession in modern times', Islamic Law and Society, Vol 4, p 3. The restraint on rent was repealed only in 2001 in Singapore. Estate duty was paid on the death of each beneficiary before May 1961. MLJ, Vol 28, 1992, pp 363-364.
19. SSLR (1928), pp 37-45. SSLR (1935), Vol 14, p 26. SSLR (1932), p 46. For more information, see Mohd Zain bin Haji Othman (1982), Islamic Law with Special Reference to the Institution of Waqf, Prime Minister's Department, Kuala Lumpur, pp 154-156.
20. Siti Mashitoh Mahamood (2006), Waqf in Malaysia: Legal and Administrative Perspectives, University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, pp 66-68, 120, 122, 123-140.
21. Hindu and Mohamedan Endowments Board Handbook (1905), Penang, p 9. Straits Settlements Government Gazette, December 1908, p 1900.
22. See also 'The Crown Lands Ordinance 1886', in Straits Settlements Government Gazette, 1889, No 1, p 2029. See also SSLR (1941-42), pp 59-68.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid. See also Khublall, N. (1984), Law of Compulsory Purchase and Compensation - Singapore and Malaysia, Butterworths, Singapore.
25. Chung, Stephanie Po Yin (2003), 'Western law in Asian customs: legal disputes on business practices in India, British Malaya and Hong Kong 1850s-1930s', Asia Europe Journal, Vol 1, pp 527-529 [Springer Verlag, 2003].
26. Ibid.
27. Chung, supra note 19, at p 534.
28. Matsubara, K. (2004), 'Law of ancestors, property holding practices and lineage social structures in nineteenth century South China', DPhil thesis, Oxford University, Oxford.
29. See also Cohen, M. L. (1976), House United, House Divided: The Chinese Family in Taiwan, Columbia University Press, New York.
30. Maurice Freedman (1966), Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung, Athlone Press, London.
31. Myron L. Cohen (1993), 'Shared belief: corporations, community and religion among South Taiwan Hakka during the Ch'ing', Late Imperial China, Vol 14, No 1, pp 1-33.
32. See Brown, R. A. (2000), Chinese Big Business and the Wealth of Asian Nations, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; and Brown, R. A. (2006), The Rise of the Corporate Economy in South East Asia, Routledge-Curzon, London.
33. Kuran, T. (2004), 'Why the Middle East is economically underdeveloped: historical mechanisms of institutional stagnation', Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol 18, p 3.
34. See also Goldstone, J. A. (2003), 'Islam, development and the Middle East: a comment on Timur Kuran's', in USAID, Institutional Barriers to Economic Change: Cases Considered, USAID, Washington, DC.
35. Kuran, Timur (2007), 'The scale of entrepreneurship in Middle Eastern history: inhibitive roles of Islamic institutions', unpublished paper, May, pp 32-36.
36. Baer, Gabriel (1969), Studies in Social Histories of Modern Egypt, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp 81-83.
37. SSLR (1928), June, pp 188-194; MLJ (1991), No 1, 26 April.
38. SSLR (1918), Vol 15, April.
39. SSLR (1927), No 49, pp 45-47; SSLR (1935) and October 1936, pp 193-194; Malayan Law Journal - MLJ (1986), No 1, p 115; MLJ (1991), No 1, p 453.
40. MLJ(1986),No 1, p 115; MLJ(1991),No l, p453.
41. bid
42. Siraj Sait and Hilary Lim (2006), Land, Law and Islam, Property and Human Rights in the Muslim World, Zed Books, London, pp 168-169.
43. Kahf, Monzer (1999), 'Towards the revival of Awqaf: a few Fiqhi issues to reconsider', paper for the Third Harvard Forum on Islamic Finance and Economics, 1 October, pp 103-110.
44. Straits Settlements Government Gazette, various years. 1915-35. See also Pepler. G. L. (1951), Proposed Amendment to the Singapore Improvement Ordinance (Cap 134), Document 953/7/7, Colonial Office Public Record Ogice, London.
45. Motha, P., and Yuen, B. K. P. (1999), Singapore Real Property Guide, Singapore University Press, Singapore. pp 7-8.
46. See Maps I, for Arab Land ownership between 1860 and 2007.
47. Low, L. (1997), 'The political economy of the built environment revisited', in Ooi, G. L., and Kwok, K., eds, The City and the State: Singapor's Built Environment Revisited, Singapore Institute on Policy Studies. Singapore, p 82.
48. Khoo Salma Nasutian (nd), 'Colonial intervention and transformation of Muslim waqf settlements in urban Penang: the role of the Endowment Board', unpublished paper.
49. Sheila Carapico (1998), Civil Society in Yemen: The Political Economy of Activism in Modern Arabia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 201-211.
50. For evidence of the state as a threat to the sanctity of the lands of the waqf, see the Law of Compulsory Purchase and Compensation in Singapore and Malaysia 1963 and the Amendments in 1966, 1970 and 1973. In the Singapore context, the concept of market value is heavily restrained by statutory provisions, since acquisition is by the state for the public good. Landowners had to be prevented from increasing the financial burden on the state. Hence the waqf was disadvantaged by limited rights to compensation. Court cases brought by waqf owners took place in 1927, 1935, 1937 and 1970. SSLR (1927), No 49, pp 45-57. SSLR (1935-36), pp 193-194. MLJ (1986), Vol 1, p 115. MLJ (1991), Vol 1, p 453. 'Ethnicity and regional distribution of land ownership in Singapore', Straits Settlements Government Gazette, 1891. 'Municipal voters qualified to vote in elections of Municipal Commissions', Straits Settlements Government Gazette, 1831-1939. State of Singapore and Republic of Singapore Government Gazette, 1959-1999. Administration of Muslim Law Act 1966 (Act 27); Act 34, 1973; Amendment Act 31, 1975; Amendment Act 31 of 1984; Administration of Muslim Law Amendment Act 1984; Act 14 of 1990; Administration of Muslim Law Amendment 1990; Act 20, 1999; Administration of Muslim Law Amendment Act 1999. Land Acquisition Act, 17 June 1966, amended in 1970, 1973, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2005. These pieces of legislation focused on power to seize possessions, compensation and service of notice. Rent Control Act, July 1947, 1953, 1966. MLJ (1966), Vol 2, p 121; MLJ (1967), Vol 1, p 87.
51. Miriam Hoexter (1998), Endowments, Rulers and Community: Waqf al-Haramayn in Ottoman Algiers, Brill, Leiden, pp 2, 167-172.
52. van den Berg, L. W. C. (1886), Le Hadramout et les Colonies Arabes dans L'Archipel Indien, 1 ed, Imprimerie du Gouvernement, Batavia, p 136.
53. Vlieland, C. A. (1931), British Malaya: A Report on the 1931 Census and on Certain Problems of Vital Statistics, Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, p 37.
54. Ingrams, W. H. A. (1937), Report on the Social, Economic and Political Condition of the Hadhramaut, His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, p 150.
55. Mattar, Yasser (2004), 'Arab ethnic enterprises in colonial Singapore: market entry and exit mechanisms 1819-1965', Asia Pacific Viewpoint, Vol 45, No 2, August, pp 165-179.
56. SSLR (1927), 'The Compulsory Acquisition of Land for Public Purpose Ordinance 1920', p 49. Straits Settlement Government Gazette, 16 March 1894, pp 348-358. The Rate Payers' associations were dominated by Arab and Indian Muslims and the Chinese, who were entitled to become Municipal Commissioners.
57. Ibid.
58. Morley, J. A. E. (1949), 'The Arabs and the eastern trade', JMBRAS, Vol XXII, Part 1, March, p 170.
59. List of Building Plans Accession Number 3663-507D, 1900-1946, Government Records Information Database. See also SSLR (1935-39); MLJ (1982), Vol 2.
60. The long-term leases of waqf land posed several problems. The Rent Control Act placed restrictions on rent rises, which favoured tenants, dissuading rent rises and repossessions for unpaid rents. These major hurdles also obstructed the redevelopment of dilapidated properties. Rent Control Act, July 1947, 1953, 1966;
61. MLJ (1966), Vol 2, p 121; MLJ (1967), Vol 1, p 87; SSLR (1935 and October 1936). pp 193-194. The Singapore Improvement Trust maintained a ferocious speed of acquisition for regeneration in the interwar years as well as in the immediate post-war years. The Aljunied family sought compensation during these years, bur failed. MLJ (1936). Vol 5, November, p 248. Dispute over exchanges for those properties with better rental incomes, 24 September 1936. Jumabhoy, R., Oral History Interview, 6 July 1981, A000074.37, Alsagoff and Geylang Serai Settlement. Alsagoff became Honorary Consul General for Saudi Arabia, and later became a citizen of Saudi Arabia.
62. Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied (2007), 'The role of Hadramis in post Second World War Singapore - a reinterpretation', Immigrants and Minorities, Vol 25, No 2, July, pp 163-183. For a genealogy of the Alsagoff family, see Figure 6.
63. MUIS (1989), Annual Report, p 14.
64. MUIS (1993-99), Annual Reports, Baitul-Mal Division. The Johor state in 1975 contested the ownership of lands held by the Alsagoff family. Many of these lands had been bequeathed to Alsagoff by Sultan Abu Bakar in 1906. MLJ (1975), Vol 1, p 241.
65. See also Khublall, supra note 18, at p 19.
66. MLJ (1950), Vol 20, p 105. Dispute over the will of Syed Alwee Alkaff - whether his properties belonged to his heirs or were to remain in the waqf; his earlier will of 1893 was disputed over beneficiaries. Again, case discussed 17 March 1954.
67. Interview with Trustee and Mutawalli of Alsagoff Waqf in Singapore, 4 June 2007.
68. Alsagoff, S. M. (1963), 'The Alsagoff family in Malaysia, A.H. 1240 (1824) to A.H. 1382 (1962)'.
69. MUIS, Annual Report 2001-6, MUIS, Singapore. The Administration of Muslim Law Act [AMLA], Section 58, 1968, Republic of Singapore Government Gazette, Acts and Amendments Supplement, 1968. Amendments 1985, 1990.
70. MUIS, Annual Reports, 1979-2006.
71. MUIS, Annual Reports 1991-2007.
72. See also Law Reports post-1970 for land disputes. The crucial information on land disputes is in the Straits Settlements Government Gazette from 1880-1940, State of Singapore Ordinance 1952-1968, Republic of Singapore Government Gazette Act Supplement 1970-2006, Government Printing Office, Singapore.
73. MUIS (2008), 'Warees investments', Annual Report, 13 May. By 2005, the shophouses owned by MUIS accounted for 5% of the value of the total property portfolio, residential investment hovered around 6% of the total value of properties in the waqf, and commercial buildings accounted for another 12%, while new projects accounted for 26% of the total value of its assets. Interviews with Warees officials - 30 May 2007. There is secrecy surrounding their acquisitions in the Middle East. DTZ, a real estate company, holds joint initiatives with Warees. Again, this is clouded in secrecy.
74. Interview with Trustee of Alsagoff waqf, 4 June 2007. Abdoolabhoy Lalljee to First Assistant Resident, 4 September 1922, Oriental and Indian Office Collection (OIOC), R/20/AJ 1407, British Library, London.
75. Alkaff transcript (nd), National Archives of Singapore, A000124, Singapore.
76. Jumabhoy Lalljee to First Assistant Resident, Aden, 9 July 1927, OIOC, R/ 20/A/1414, British Library, London.
77. Note on the Revenue of Shihr and Mokalla (1928), OIOC, R/20/A/3255, British Library, London.
78. Shaykh Alkaff's wills in 6-2-1910, OIOC, R/20/A3874, British Library, London. Watts, A. F. (1947), 'Some notes on the rural economy of Waddi Hadhramaut', OIOC, R/20/B/2033, British Library, London.
79. An excellent source on cash waqf is Cizakca, M. A. (2000), History of Philanthropic Foundations: The Islamic World from the Seventh Century to the Present, Bogazici University, Istanbul. Cizakca (2004), Ottoman Cash Waqfs Revisited: The Case of Bursa 1555-1823, Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization, Manchester.
80. National Archives of Singapore, Syed Mohsen Alsagoff transcript, 15 January 1983, B00523, Singapore. Watts, supra note 60.
81. .....temporality comes from depletion of the asset, in terms of a perpetual asset that produces a repetitive flow of income or services or in terms of a right granted to the beneficiary to reserve periodically or at repeated intervals or when needed, a flow of mobile objects, usufructs. All are waqf ...' Monzer Kahf (1999), 'Towards the revival of awqaf: a few Fiqhi issues to reconsider', unpublished paper for Harvard Forum on Islamic Finance and Economics, 1 October.
82. Interview with Trustee and Mutawalli of Alsagoff waqf, Singapore, 4 June 2007.
83. Alsagoff, S. M. (1963), The Alsagoff Family in Malaysia, A. H. 1240 (1824) to A. H. 1382 (1962), Mon Seong Press, Singapore.
84. Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2002), 'The rise and fall of Hadrami Arab shipping in the Indian Ocean, c. 1750 - c.
85. 1940', in Parkin, D., and Barnes, R., eds, Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology in the Indian Ocean, Routledge Curzon, London, pp 227-258.
86. The Arabs were active in the importation of opium from Persia and India into Singapore between 1888 and 1924, but the smuggling of opium from China by the Chinese accelerated between 1928 and 1934. Yet the figures on total opium imports into Singapore still reveal a higher ratio of imports from Persia in these same years (1928-34). Does this perhaps reveal a continuity of Arab involvement in the drug trade? Straits Settlement Reports of 1886, 1910, British Malaya Opium Committee, 1924, pp 1-13,
87. Singapore Government Printer, 1924. Also, Report by Auditor, Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States on Revenue and Expenditure of the Straits Settlements for the year 1934 and on the Audit of the Accounts.
88. See also Carl Trocki (1999), Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy: A Study of the Asian Opium Trade, Routledge, London. For details on Arabs and the role in their slave trade,
89. see Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2006), Islam and the Abolition of Slavery, Oxford University Press, New York.
90. Eric Tagliacozzo (2007), Secret Trades, Porous Borders: Smuggling and States Along a Southeast Asian Frontier, 1865-1915,
91. National University of Singapore Press, Singapore, pp 193, 236-251, 307. George Stauth (1992), 'Slave trade, multiculturalism and Islam in colonial Singapore: a sociological note on Christian Snouck Hurgronje's 1891 article on slave trade in Singapore', Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol 20, No 1, pp 67-79.
92. Interview with Trustee of Alsagoff waqf in Singapore, 4 June 2007.
93. For an analysis of Sukuk, see McMillen, Michael J. T. (2007), 'Sukuk (Islamic bonds and securitization): towards a viable capital (including secondary) market', in S. Nazim Ali, ed, Interacting Islamic Finance into the Mainstream: Regulation, Standardization and Transparency, Islamic Finance Project, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA.
94. MUIS, Annual Report, 1996-97, p 102.
95. Interview with Chaiwat Satha-anand, Thammasat University, 26 May 2007. Brown, R. A. (1994), Capital and Entrepreneurship in South East Asia, Macmillan Press, Basingstoke, pp 152-172.
96. Brown, R. A. (2008), 'Capitalism and Islam: Arab business groups and capital flows in South East Asia', Chapter 8, in Smith, C., McSweeney, B., and Fitzgerald, R., eds, Global Management Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Continuous litigation on Alkaff waqf in 1937, 1940, 1950, 1954, 1955, 1971, 1991,
97. Aljunied waqf, 1935, 1952, 1966, 1991, Syed Ahmed Alsagoff, 1961, 1962, 1963. See MLJ (1950), Vol 1, p 221; 21 April 1991,Vol 1, Nov 1993, Vol 5, p 24.
98. See Sheila Carapico (1998), Civil Society in Yemen: The Political Economy of Activism in Modern Arabia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 201-211. For developments on the Hadhramaut and the diaspora
99. see Ulrika Freitag (2003), Indian Ocean, Migrants and State Formation in Hadhramaut, Brill, Leiden. Engseng Ho (2006), The Graves of Tarim, Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
100. The Islamic Bank of Asia Ltd, Singapore, Annual Report for Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority and Accountants, Price Waterhouse Coopers, Accounts up to 31 December 2007. Meeting (AGM), 20 May 2008. MUIS, Annual Report, 2005.
101. MUIS, WAREES Investments Annual Reports, 2001-06.
102. MUIS, Annual Report, 2005. For details on ijara financing,
103. see Mahmoud A. El Gamal (2006), Islamic Finance, Law, Economics, and Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 126, 131, 132, 199.
104. MUIS, Annual Report, 2001-06.
105. Ibid. There are also separate annual reports from Freshmill Ltd and Fusion Investments for 2002-06.
106. MUIS, Annual Report 2002-03, Warees Investments, 2002-3.
107. Ibid.
108. Fusion Investments, Annual Report, 2003-04. MUIS, Annual Report, 2000-06.
109. Annual Report, Warees Investments, 13 May 2008.
110. MUIS, 13 May 2008, Annual Report; Warees Investments, Annual Report, 2006; Freshmill Ltd Annual Report, May 2002. What is intriguing here is the involvement of DTZ Debenham Tie Leung Property Management Services PTE Ltd, a company formed by an intermediate holding company - Edmund Tie and Co with major partner Edmund Tie Nyuk Siong and another holding company DTZ Debenham Tie Leung (Southeast Asia) PTE Ltd. There is also another subsidiary, DTZ Debenham Tie Leung Ltd. All these firms reveal major shareholdings by Tie Nuyk Siong and Heng Hua Thong. DTZ has interests in the Middle East and the UK.
111. El Gamal, supra note 75, at pp 126, 131, 132, 199. By 2005, the shophouses owned by MUIS accounted for 56% of the value of its total property portfolio; residential investments amounted to 6% of the total value of properties in the waqf; and commercial buildings accounted for another 12%, while new projects accounted for 26% of the total value of its assets.
112. Temasek Holdings, Annual Report, 2006-07.
113. Kuran, unpublished paper, May 2007.
114. Gerber, H. (1999), 'Muslim and Zimmis in Ottoman economy and society: encounters culture and knowledge', in Motika, R., Herzog, C., and Ursinus, M., eds, Studies in Ottoman Social and Economics Life, Heidelberger Orientverlag, Heidelberg, p 100.
115. Marshall G. S. Hodgson (1974), The Venture of Islam, Volume 2, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, p 124.
116. Larner, W., and Le Heron, R. (2002), 'From economic globalization economic processes: towards post structuralist political economics', Geoforum, Vol 33, pp 415-419.
117. Gibson-Graham, J. K. A. (2006), Postcapitalist Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. See also Gibson-Graham (1996), The End of Capitalism As We Knew It: A Feminist Critique of Political Economy, Blackwell, Oxford.
118. Jurgen Habermas (1992), The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, Polity Press, Cambridge. For an excellent analysis of Habermas and Islam, see Nadir Ozbek, 2005.
119. Nadir Ozbek (2005), 'Philanthropic activity, Ottoman patriotism and the Hamidian regime 1876-1909', International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol 37, pp 59-81.
120. Aharon Layish (1965), 'The Muslim waqf in Israel', Hamizrah Hehadash: The New East, Quarterly of the Israel Oriental Society, Vol XV, No 1-2, pp 38-56.
121. Weber, M. (1964), A Sociology of Religion, Beacon Press, Boston, MA, p 85. For a critique on Weber and Islam,
122. see Bryan S. Turner (1998), Weber and Islam: A Critical Study, Routledge, London.