Gender, feminism and political economy

New Political Economy

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 205-220

  Waylen, Georgina ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 5944261308     PISSN: 13563467     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13563469708406297     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. See the editorial in the first issue by Andrew Gamble, Anthony Payne, Ankie Hoogvelt, Michael Dietrich & Michael Kenny, New Political Economy, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1996), pp. 5-10. For a more detailed and sophisticated exposition of the same thesis, see Andrew Gamble, 'The New Political Economy', Political Studies, Vol. 43, No. 3 (1995), pp. 516-29.
2. See the editorial in the first issue by Andrew Gamble, Anthony Payne, Ankie Hoogvelt, Michael Dietrich & Michael Kenny, New Political Economy, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1996), pp. 5-10. For a more detailed and sophisticated exposition of the same thesis, see Andrew Gamble, 'The New Political Economy', Political Studies, Vol. 43, No. 3 (1995), pp. 516-29.
3. The NPE editorial sees the distinction between the public and the private as a distinction between the state and the economy. For a feminist analysis, see Carol Pateman, 'Feminist critiques of the public/private dichotomy', in: S. Benn & G. Gaus (Eds), The Public and the Private in Social Life (Croom Helm, 1983).
4. See for example Christine Sylvester, 'The emperor's theories and transformations: looking at the field through feminist lenses', in: Dennis Pirages & Christine Sylvester (Eds), Transformations in the Global Political Economy (Macmillan, 1990); Sandra Whitworth, 'Theory as exclusion: gender and international political economy', in: Richard Stubbs & Geoffrey Underhill (Eds), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (Macmillan, 1994), pp. 116-29; and J. Ann Tickner, 'On the fringes of the world economy: a feminist perspective', in: Craig Murphy & Roger Tooze (Eds), The New International Political Economy (Lynne Rienner, 1991), pp. 191-206.
5. See for example Christine Sylvester, 'The emperor's theories and transformations: looking at the field through feminist lenses', in: Dennis Pirages & Christine Sylvester (Eds), Transformations in the Global Political Economy (Macmillan, 1990); Sandra Whitworth, 'Theory as exclusion: gender and international political economy', in: Richard Stubbs & Geoffrey Underhill (Eds), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (Macmillan, 1994), pp. 116-29; and J. Ann Tickner, 'On the fringes of the world economy: a feminist perspective', in: Craig Murphy & Roger Tooze (Eds), The New International Political Economy (Lynne Rienner, 1991), pp. 191-206.
6. See for example Christine Sylvester, 'The emperor's theories and transformations: looking at the field through feminist lenses', in: Dennis Pirages & Christine Sylvester (Eds), Transformations in the Global Political Economy (Macmillan, 1990); Sandra Whitworth, 'Theory as exclusion: gender and international political economy', in: Richard Stubbs & Geoffrey Underhill (Eds), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (Macmillan, 1994), pp. 116-29; and J. Ann Tickner, 'On the fringes of the world economy: a feminist perspective', in: Craig Murphy & Roger Tooze (Eds), The New International Political Economy (Lynne Rienner, 1991), pp. 191-206.
7. Lourdes Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics', World Development, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), p. 1839. For early examples of feminist economics, see Barbara Bergman, 'The Economic Risks of Being a Housewife', American Economic Review, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 8-86; and Marilyn Waring, If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics (Harper and Row, 1988).
8. Lourdes Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics', World Development, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), p. 1839. For early examples of feminist economics, see Barbara Bergman, 'The Economic Risks of Being a Housewife', American Economic Review, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 8-86; and Marilyn Waring, If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics (Harper and Row, 1988).
9. Lourdes Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics', World Development, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), p. 1839. For early examples of feminist economics, see Barbara Bergman, 'The Economic Risks of Being a Housewife', American Economic Review, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 8-86; and Marilyn Waring, If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics (Harper and Row, 1988).
10. Volume One of Feminist Economics appeared in 1995; the first discussion of feminist theory and economics to achieve a high visibility took place at the annual meeting of the American Economic Association in 1990; and an international conference 'Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economic Theory' took place in Amsterdam in June 1993 and has resulted in the publication of Edith Kuiper & Jolande Sap with Susan Feiner, Notburga Ott and Zafiris Tzannatos (Eds), Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics (Routledge, 1995).
11. Volume One of Feminist Economics appeared in 1995; the first discussion of feminist theory and economics to achieve a high visibility took place at the annual meeting of the American Economic Association in 1990; and an international conference 'Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economic Theory' took place in Amsterdam in June 1993 and has resulted in the publication of Edith Kuiper & Jolande Sap with Susan Feiner, Notburga Ott and Zafiris Tzannatos (Eds), Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics (Routledge, 1995).
12. Many feminist economists such as Nancy Folbre (see Nancy Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint (Routledge, 1995), pp. 29-38 and 'Socialism, feminist and scientific', in: Marianne Ferber & Julie Nelson (Eds), Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics (University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 94-110) have also been critical of Marxist political economy, arguing that it has no adequate explanation of the subordination of women and further suggesting that, while it has a very different analysis of the workings of the market from neoclassical economists, it shares some of the same assumptions when dealing with the household. At the same time critiques of crude Marxism and the development of socialist feminism have also provided an important impetus for the development of some areas of feminist economics. In a new departure, J.K. Gibson-Graham has put forward a critique of capitalism which is derived from feminist and poststructuralist theorising as well as anti-essentialist Marxism. See J.K. Gibson-Graham, The End of Capitalism (as We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy (Blackwell, 1996). However, I do not have the space to deal with these satisfactorily here.
13. Many feminist economists such as Nancy Folbre (see Nancy Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint (Routledge, 1995), pp. 29-38 and 'Socialism, feminist and scientific', in: Marianne Ferber & Julie Nelson (Eds), Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics (University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 94-110) have also been critical of Marxist political economy, arguing that it has no adequate explanation of the subordination of women and further suggesting that, while it has a very different analysis of the workings of the market from neoclassical economists, it shares some of the same assumptions when dealing with the household. At the same time critiques of crude Marxism and the development of socialist feminism have also provided an important impetus for the development of some areas of feminist economics. In a new departure, J.K. Gibson-Graham has put forward a critique of capitalism which is derived from feminist and poststructuralist theorising as well as anti-essentialist Marxism. See J.K. Gibson-Graham, The End of Capitalism (as We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy (Blackwell, 1996). However, I do not have the space to deal with these satisfactorily here.
14. Many feminist economists such as Nancy Folbre (see Nancy Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint (Routledge, 1995), pp. 29-38 and 'Socialism, feminist and scientific', in: Marianne Ferber & Julie Nelson (Eds), Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics (University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 94-110) have also been critical of Marxist political economy, arguing that it has no adequate explanation of the subordination of women and further suggesting that, while it has a very different analysis of the workings of the market from neoclassical economists, it shares some of the same assumptions when dealing with the household. At the same time critiques of crude Marxism and the development of socialist feminism have also provided an important impetus for the development of some areas of feminist economics. In a new departure, J.K. Gibson-Graham has put forward a critique of capitalism which is derived from feminist and poststructuralist theorising as well as anti-essentialist Marxism. See J.K. Gibson-Graham, The End of Capitalism (as We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy (Blackwell, 1996). However, I do not have the space to deal with these satisfactorily here.
15. It is impossible to say that there is one homogeneous version of feminism. Until the mid-1980s the different strands used to be characterised as liberal, socialist and radical feminist. Since then, 'difference feminism', influenced by postmodernism and the critiques of black and Third World feminists, has made the definition of feminism even more complex, with analyses of race and sexuality playing a much more important role.
16. Diana Strassmann sets out some of the tasks for a feminist economics in the editorial of the first issue of Feminist Economics, entitled 'Creating a Forum for Feminist Inquiry', Feminist Economics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1995), pp. 1-5. Frances Woolley sees the championing of policies to promote gender equity as forming part of the agenda of a feminist neoclassical economics. Woolley, 'The Feminist Challenge to Neoclassical Economics', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 17 (1993), p. 486.
17. Diana Strassmann sets out some of the tasks for a feminist economics in the editorial of the first issue of Feminist Economics, entitled 'Creating a Forum for Feminist Inquiry', Feminist Economics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1995), pp. 1-5. Frances Woolley sees the championing of policies to promote gender equity as forming part of the agenda of a feminist neoclassical economics. Woolley, 'The Feminist Challenge to Neoclassical Economics', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 17 (1993), p. 486.
18. See for example the articles in the special issue of History of Political Economy, such as Nancy Folbre, 'How Does She Know? Feminist Theories of Gender Bias in Economics', History of Political Economy, Vol. 25, No. 1 (1993), pp. 167-84; and Julie Nelson, 'Value Free or Valueless: Notes on the Pursuit of Detachment in Economics', ibid., pp. 147-66.
19. See for example the articles in the special issue of History of Political Economy, such as Nancy Folbre, 'How Does She Know? Feminist Theories of Gender Bias in Economics', History of Political Economy, Vol. 25, No. 1 (1993), pp. 167-84; and Julie Nelson, 'Value Free or Valueless: Notes on the Pursuit of Detachment in Economics', ibid., pp. 147-66.
20. Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Cornell University Press, 1986).
21. Sandra Harding, 'Can Feminist Thought Make Economics More Objective?', Feminist Economics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1995), pp. 7-32.
22. Janet Seiz, 'Epistemology and the Tasks of Feminist Economics', Feminist Economics, Vol. 1, No. 3 (1995), pp. 110-18.
23. Donald McClosky, The Rhetoric of Economics (University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).
24. Julie Nelson, 'The study of choice or the study of provisioning? Gender and the definition of economics', in: Ferber & Nelson, Beyond Economic Man, pp. 23-36. See also Nilufer Cagatay, Diane Elson & Caren Grown, 'Introduction' to the special issue on 'Gender, Adjustment and Macroeconomics', World Development, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), pp. 1827-36.
25. Julie Nelson, 'The study of choice or the study of provisioning? Gender and the definition of economics', in: Ferber & Nelson, Beyond Economic Man, pp. 23-36. See also Nilufer Cagatay, Diane Elson & Caren Grown, 'Introduction' to the special issue on 'Gender, Adjustment and Macroeconomics', World Development, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), pp. 1827-36.
26. Amartya Sen, 'Gender and cooperative conflicts', in: Irene Tinker (Ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 123-49.
27. Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender into Economics', p. 1847.
28. Marianne Ferber & Julie Nelson, 'Introduction: the social construction of economics and the social construction of gender', in: Ferber & Nelson, Beyond Economic Man, pp. 8-12.
29. While some radical institutionalists appear to argue that feminist economics can be subsumed into radical institutionalism, most feminist economists would argue that, despite some similar aims, the two are not the same. For an exposition of this view of the shared aims of radical institutionalism and feminist economics, see Janice Peterson & Doug Brown (Eds), The Economic Status of Women Under Capitalism: Institutional Economics and Feminist Theory (Edward Elgar, 1994).
30. Ann Jennings argues for a feminist institutionalism in Jennings, 'Public or private? Institutionalism, economics and feminism', in: Ferber & Nelson, Beyond Economic Man, pp. 111-29.
31. In a variation on this approach Julie Nelson sees gender as a cognitive patterning system. See Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics (Routledge, 1996), pp. 3-19.
32. Cagatay et al., 'Introduction', p. 1828.
33. See Julie Nelson, 'Feminism and Economics', Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1995), pp. 138-41; and Martha MacDonald, 'The empirical challenges of feminist economics', in: Kuiper et al., Out of the Margin, pp. 175-98.
34. See Julie Nelson, 'Feminism and Economics', Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1995), pp. 138-41; and Martha MacDonald, 'The empirical challenges of feminist economics', in: Kuiper et al., Out of the Margin, pp. 175-98.
35. See Paula England, 'The separative self: androcentric bias in neoclassical assumptions', in: Ferber & Nelson, Beyond Economic Man, pp. 37-53; and Nancy Folbre & Heidi Hartmann, 'The rhetoric of self-interest: ideology and gender in economic theory', in: Arjo Klamer et al. (Eds), The Consequences of Economic Rhetoric (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 184-206.
36. See Paula England, 'The separative self: androcentric bias in neoclassical assumptions', in: Ferber & Nelson, Beyond Economic Man, pp. 37-53; and Nancy Folbre & Heidi Hartmann, 'The rhetoric of self-interest: ideology and gender in economic theory', in: Arjo Klamer et al. (Eds), The Consequences of Economic Rhetoric (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 184-206.
37. Debra Friedman & Carol Diem, 'Feminism and pro- (rational-) choice movement: rational-choice theory, feminist critiques, and gender inequality', in: Paula England (Ed.), Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory (Aldine de Gruyter, 1993), pp. 91-114.
38. Nancy Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint (Routledge, 1995), pp. 17-29.
39. Frances Woolley also makes this point in 'The Feminist Challenge to Neo-classical Economics', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 17 (1993), pp. 485-500.
40. Paula England, 'A Feminist Critique of Rational-Choice Theories: Implications for Sociology', The American Sociologist, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1989), pp. 14-28.
41. Amartya K. Sen, Choice, Welfare and Measurement (Blackwell, 1982), p. 99, quoted in Naila Kabeer, 'Cultural Dopes or Rational Fools? Women and Labour Supply in the Bangladesh Garment Industry', European Journal of Development Research (June 1991), p. 133.
42. Amartya K. Sen, Choice, Welfare and Measurement (Blackwell, 1982), p. 99, quoted in Naila Kabeer, 'Cultural Dopes or Rational Fools? Women and Labour Supply in the Bangladesh Garment Industry', European Journal of Development Research (June 1991), p. 133.
43. Nancy Folbre, 'Micro, macro, choice, and structure', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 323-31; and Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids?, pp. 27-9.
44. Nancy Folbre, 'Micro, macro, choice, and structure', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 323-31; and Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids?, pp. 27-9.
45. See for example Georgina Waylen, 'Women and neoliberalism', in: Judith Evans et al., Feminism and Political Theory (Sage, 1986).
46. This vague and imprecise use of terminology has been the subject of much criticism as the (nuclear and heterosexual) family and the household are not always the same thing - particularly in non-Western contexts where the household is often an extended family unit - and all over the world female-headed household are more and more common.
47. For a discussion of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'The black four of hearts: toward a new paradigm of household economics', in: Daisy Dywer & Judith Bruce (Eds), A Home Divided: Women and Income in the Third World (Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 248-62; Diane Elson, 'Micro, meso, macro: gender and economic analysis in the context of policy reform', in: Isabella Bakker (Ed.), The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy (Zed, 1994), pp. 35-6; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
48. For a discussion of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'The black four of hearts: toward a new paradigm of household economics', in: Daisy Dywer & Judith Bruce (Eds), A Home Divided: Women and Income in the Third World (Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 248-62; Diane Elson, 'Micro, meso, macro: gender and economic analysis in the context of policy reform', in: Isabella Bakker (Ed.), The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy (Zed, 1994), pp. 35-6; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
49. For a discussion of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'The black four of hearts: toward a new paradigm of household economics', in: Daisy Dywer & Judith Bruce (Eds), A Home Divided: Women and Income in the Third World (Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 248-62; Diane Elson, 'Micro, meso, macro: gender and economic analysis in the context of policy reform', in: Isabella Bakker (Ed.), The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy (Zed, 1994), pp. 35-6; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
50. For critiques of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics', World Development, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1986), pp. 245-55; Sharon Stichter, 'Women, employment and the family: current debates', in: Sharon Stichter & Jane Parpart (Eds), Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour (Macmillan, 1990), pp. 29-39; Judith Bruce, 'Homes Divided', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 7 (1989), pp. 979-91; Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics'; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
51. For critiques of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics', World Development, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1986), pp. 245-55; Sharon Stichter, 'Women, employment and the family: current debates', in: Sharon Stichter & Jane Parpart (Eds), Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour (Macmillan, 1990), pp. 29-39; Judith Bruce, 'Homes Divided', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 7 (1989), pp. 979-91; Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics'; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
52. For critiques of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics', World Development, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1986), pp. 245-55; Sharon Stichter, 'Women, employment and the family: current debates', in: Sharon Stichter & Jane Parpart (Eds), Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour (Macmillan, 1990), pp. 29-39; Judith Bruce, 'Homes Divided', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 7 (1989), pp. 979-91; Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics'; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
53. For critiques of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics', World Development, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1986), pp. 245-55; Sharon Stichter, 'Women, employment and the family: current debates', in: Sharon Stichter & Jane Parpart (Eds), Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour (Macmillan, 1990), pp. 29-39; Judith Bruce, 'Homes Divided', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 7 (1989), pp. 979-91; Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics'; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
54. For critiques of NHE, see Nancy Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics', World Development, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1986), pp. 245-55; Sharon Stichter, 'Women, employment and the family: current debates', in: Sharon Stichter & Jane Parpart (Eds), Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour (Macmillan, 1990), pp. 29-39; Judith Bruce, 'Homes Divided', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 7 (1989), pp. 979-91; Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender in Economics'; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, ch. 5.
55. Folbre, 'The black four of hearts', p. 252; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, p. 62.
56. Folbre, 'The black four of hearts', p. 252; and Nelson, Feminism, Objectivity and Economics, p. 62.
57. Sen, 'Gender and cooperative conflicts', pp. 123-49.
58. Elson, 'Micro, meso, macro', p. 38.
59. Notburga Ott, 'Fertility and division of work in the family: a game theoretic model of household decisions', in: Kuiper et al., Out of the Margin, pp. 80-99.
60. For an interesting attempt to utilise this framework to analyse whether an increase in women's income-earning capacity can act to empower them within the household, see L.N. Khan Osmani, 'The Grameen Bank experiment: empowerment of women through credit', paper presented to the Development Studies Association annual meeting, Dublin, September 1995.
61. See the World Development special issue, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), on 'Gender, Adjustment and Macroeconomics', and Bakker, The Strategic Silence.
62. See the World Development special issue, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), on 'Gender, Adjustment and Macroeconomics', and Bakker, The Strategic Silence.
63. See the World Development special issue, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), on 'Gender, Adjustment and Macroeconomics', and Bakker, The Strategic Silence.
64. Cagatay et al., 'Introduction', p. 1829.
65. Feminist analyses of the state are still at an early stage in their development. Until recently many feminists have tended to either ignore the state or characterise it overly simplistically as either good for women (for example, the welfare state which can provide women with an income independent of individual men and to be embraced) or bad for women (as the embodiment of patriarchy and to be avoided). There is a pressing need for more sophisticated analyses. Some attempts are now being made to provide them. See Shirin Rai & Geraldine Lievesley (Eds), Women and the State: International Perspectives (Taylor and Francis, 1996); and Vicky Randall & Georgina Waylen (Eds), Gender, Politics and the State (Routledge, forthcoming).
66. Feminist analyses of the state are still at an early stage in their development. Until recently many feminists have tended to either ignore the state or characterise it overly simplistically as either good for women (for example, the welfare state which can provide women with an income independent of individual men and to be embraced) or bad for women (as the embodiment of patriarchy and to be avoided). There is a pressing need for more sophisticated analyses. Some attempts are now being made to provide them. See Shirin Rai & Geraldine Lievesley (Eds), Women and the State: International Perspectives (Taylor and Francis, 1996); and Vicky Randall & Georgina Waylen (Eds), Gender, Politics and the State (Routledge, forthcoming).
67. Elson, 'Micro, meso, macro', p. 42.
68. These are: first, 'the gender disaggregation method', which involves disaggregating existing macroeconomic variables by gender but does not incorporate the reproductive economy into the models; second, 'the gendered macroeconomic variable approach', which introduces new variables demonstrating the structure of gender relations; third, 'the two sector system', which makes a separation between the traditional macroeconomy and a non-macroeconomic system including gender variables; and fourth, the 'combination method', which involves a mixture of methods, for example combining the second and third approaches outlined above. These alternatives are discussed in Cagatay et al., 'Introduction', p. 1830.
69. Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender into Economics'; and Cagatay et al., 'Introduction'.
70. Beneria, 'Toward a Greater Integration of Gender into Economics'; and Cagatay et al., 'Introduction'.
71. Martha MacDonald, 'The empirical challenges of feminist economics: the example of economic restructuring', in: Kuiper et al., Out of the Margin, p. 180.
72. Martha MacDonald, 'Post-Fordism and the Flexibility Debate', Studies in Political Economy, Vol. 36 (Fall 1991), p. 177.
73. Isabella Bakker, 'Introduction: engendering macro-economic policy reform in the era of global restructuring and adjustment', in: Bakker, The Strategic Silence, pp. 1-29.
74. Martha MacDonald provides a gendered critique of the flexible specialisation debates in 'Post-Fordism and the Flexibility Debate', citing the work of Sylvia Walby, Anna Pollert and Jane Jenson. For a case study of gender and restructuring in the First World, see Marjorie Cohen, 'The implications of economic restructuring for women: the Canadian situation', in: Bakker, The Strategic Silence, pp. 103-16.
75. Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (St Martin's Press, 1970).
76. See for example Irene Tinker, 'The adverse effect of development on women', in: Irene Tinker & Michelle Bramsen (Eds), Women and World Development (Overseas Development Council, 1976); Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (Kogan Page, 1980); Lourdes Beneria & Gita Sen, 'Accumulation, Reproduction and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited', Signs, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 279-98; and Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz & Roisin McCullagh (Eds), Of Marriage and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (CSE Books, 1981). World systems theories, for example, have been subjected to particular criticism by Kathryn Ward who argues that they exclude the role of women from the global economy and need to be recast to include gender and race at their core. See, for example, Kathryn Ward, 'Reconceptualising world system theory to include women', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 43-68.
77. See for example Irene Tinker, 'The adverse effect of development on women', in: Irene Tinker & Michelle Bramsen (Eds), Women and World Development (Overseas Development Council, 1976); Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (Kogan Page, 1980); Lourdes Beneria & Gita Sen, 'Accumulation, Reproduction and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited', Signs, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 279-98; and Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz & Roisin McCullagh (Eds), Of Marriage and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (CSE Books, 1981). World systems theories, for example, have been subjected to particular criticism by Kathryn Ward who argues that they exclude the role of women from the global economy and need to be recast to include gender and race at their core. See, for example, Kathryn Ward, 'Reconceptualising world system theory to include women', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 43-68.
78. See for example Irene Tinker, 'The adverse effect of development on women', in: Irene Tinker & Michelle Bramsen (Eds), Women and World Development (Overseas Development Council, 1976); Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (Kogan Page, 1980); Lourdes Beneria & Gita Sen, 'Accumulation, Reproduction and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited', Signs, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 279-98; and Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz & Roisin McCullagh (Eds), Of Marriage and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (CSE Books, 1981). World systems theories, for example, have been subjected to particular criticism by Kathryn Ward who argues that they exclude the role of women from the global economy and need to be recast to include gender and race at their core. See, for example, Kathryn Ward, 'Reconceptualising world system theory to include women', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 43-68.
79. See for example Irene Tinker, 'The adverse effect of development on women', in: Irene Tinker & Michelle Bramsen (Eds), Women and World Development (Overseas Development Council, 1976); Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (Kogan Page, 1980); Lourdes Beneria & Gita Sen, 'Accumulation, Reproduction and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited', Signs, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 279-98; and Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz & Roisin McCullagh (Eds), Of Marriage and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (CSE Books, 1981). World systems theories, for example, have been subjected to particular criticism by Kathryn Ward who argues that they exclude the role of women from the global economy and need to be recast to include gender and race at their core. See, for example, Kathryn Ward, 'Reconceptualising world system theory to include women', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 43-68.
80. See for example Irene Tinker, 'The adverse effect of development on women', in: Irene Tinker & Michelle Bramsen (Eds), Women and World Development (Overseas Development Council, 1976); Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (Kogan Page, 1980); Lourdes Beneria & Gita Sen, 'Accumulation, Reproduction and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited', Signs, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1981), pp. 279-98; and Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz & Roisin McCullagh (Eds), Of Marriage and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (CSE Books, 1981). World systems theories, for example, have been subjected to particular criticism by Kathryn Ward who argues that they exclude the role of women from the global economy and need to be recast to include gender and race at their core. See, for example, Kathryn Ward, 'Reconceptualising world system theory to include women', in: England, Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, pp. 43-68.
81. For examples of work within a Marxian paradigm, see Carmen Diana Deere, 'Changing Social Relations of Production and Peruvian Peasant Women's Work', Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 4. Nos. 1-2 (1977), pp. 48-69;
82. and Lourdes Beneria (Ed.), Women and Development: The Sexual Division of Labour in Rural Societies (Praeger, 1982).
83. For a Third World feminist perspective, see the DAWN publication by Gita Sen & Caren Grown (Eds), Development Crises and Alternative Visions (Earthscan Publications, 1987).
84. Lourdes Beneria, 'Gender and the global economy', in: Arthur MacEwan & William Tabb (Eds), Instability and Change in the World Economy (Monthly Review Press, 1989), pp. 241-58. More recent literature, however, has begun to do this.
85. See for example Jane Jenson, 'Introduction: Some Consequences of Economic and Political Restructuring and Readjustment',
86. and M. Patricia Connelly, 'Gender Matters: Global Restructuring and Adjustment', in 'Special Issue: Gender Inequalities in Global Restructuring', Social Politics, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1996), pp. 1-11 and 12-31.
87. Gita Sen argues that this area should receive more attention in 'Gender, Markets and States: A Selective Review and Research Agenda', World Development, Vol. 24, No. 5 (1996), pp. 821-29.
88. For one recent attempt to do this, see Laura Macdonald, 'Restructuring discourse: the political economy of women's rights in the new North America', paper presented to the 37th Convention of the International Studies Association, San Diego, April 1996.
89. Guy Standing, 'Global Feminization Through Flexible Labour', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 7 (1989), pp. 1077-95.
90. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
91. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
92. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
93. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
94. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
95. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
96. For an early example, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson, 'Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing', Feminist Review (Spring 1981), pp. 87-107; Susan Joekes has provided an overview in Women in the World Economy (Oxford University Press, 1987). See also the essays in Kathryn Ward (Ed.), Women Workers and Global Restructuring (Cornell University Press, 1990) and the work of Helen Safa in, for example, The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean (Westview Press, 1995). A great deal of attention has focused on the role of female labour in the FTZs and the maquiladoras of Mexico. See Linda Lim, 'Women's work in export factories: the politics of a cause', in: Tinker, Persistent Inequalities, pp. 101-19; Ruth Pearson, 'Male bias in women's work in Mexico's border industries', in: Diane Elson (Ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 133-63. For a discussion of parts of the First World, see Diane Elson & Ruth Pearson (Eds), Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe (Macmillan, 1989).
97. For an exposition of these arguments, see Diane Elson, 'Appraising recent developments in the world market for nimble fingers', in: Amrita Chhachhi & Renee Pittin (Eds), Confronting State, Capital and Patriarchy: Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation (Macmillan, 1996), pp. 35-55.
98. M. Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, 'International development and industrial restructuring: the case of garment and electronics industries in southern California', in: MacEwan & Tabb, Instability and Change in the World Economy, pp. 147-65; and M. Patricia Fernandez-Kelly & Saskia Sassen, 'Recasting women in the global economy: internationalization and changing definitions of gender', in: Christine Bose & Edith Acosta-Belen (Eds), Women in the Latin American Development Process (Temple University Press, 1995), pp. 99-124. For a discussion of these processes in both the First and Third Worlds, see Swasti Mitter, Common Fate Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (Pluto, 1986).
99. M. Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, 'International development and industrial restructuring: the case of garment and electronics industries in southern California', in: MacEwan & Tabb, Instability and Change in the World Economy, pp. 147-65; and M. Patricia Fernandez-Kelly & Saskia Sassen, 'Recasting women in the global economy: internationalization and changing definitions of gender', in: Christine Bose & Edith Acosta-Belen (Eds), Women in the Latin American Development Process (Temple University Press, 1995), pp. 99-124. For a discussion of these processes in both the First and Third Worlds, see Swasti Mitter, Common Fate Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (Pluto, 1986).
100. M. Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, 'International development and industrial restructuring: the case of garment and electronics industries in southern California', in: MacEwan & Tabb, Instability and Change in the World Economy, pp. 147-65; and M. Patricia Fernandez-Kelly & Saskia Sassen, 'Recasting women in the global economy: internationalization and changing definitions of gender', in: Christine Bose & Edith Acosta-Belen (Eds), Women in the Latin American Development Process (Temple University Press, 1995), pp. 99-124. For a discussion of these processes in both the First and Third Worlds, see Swasti Mitter, Common Fate Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (Pluto, 1986).
101. There is a growing literature on this subject. See, for example, Valentine Moghadam, 'Gender dynamics of restructuring in the periphery', in: Rose Blumberg et al. (Eds), Engendering Wealth and Well-Being: Empowerment for Global Change (Westview, 1995), pp. 17-38; Nahid Aslanbeigui et al. (Eds), Women in the Age of Economic Transformation: Gender Impact of Reforms in Developing Countries (Routledge, 1994); and Valentine Moghadam (Ed.), Democratic Reform and the Position of Women in Transitional Economies (Clarendon, 1993).
102. There is a growing literature on this subject. See, for example, Valentine Moghadam, 'Gender dynamics of restructuring in the periphery', in: Rose Blumberg et al. (Eds), Engendering Wealth and Well-Being: Empowerment for Global Change (Westview, 1995), pp. 17-38; Nahid Aslanbeigui et al. (Eds), Women in the Age of Economic Transformation: Gender Impact of Reforms in Developing Countries (Routledge, 1994); and Valentine Moghadam (Ed.), Democratic Reform and the Position of Women in Transitional Economies (Clarendon, 1993).
103. There is a growing literature on this subject. See, for example, Valentine Moghadam, 'Gender dynamics of restructuring in the periphery', in: Rose Blumberg et al. (Eds), Engendering Wealth and Well-Being: Empowerment for Global Change (Westview, 1995), pp. 17-38; Nahid Aslanbeigui et al. (Eds), Women in the Age of Economic Transformation: Gender Impact of Reforms in Developing Countries (Routledge, 1994); and Valentine Moghadam (Ed.), Democratic Reform and the Position of Women in Transitional Economies (Clarendon, 1993).
104. Diane Wolf, Factory Daughters: Gender Household Dynamics and Rural Industrialization in Java (University of California Press, 1992).
105. For a study of resistance, see Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia (State University of New York Press, 1987), and for case studies of women's economic organising, see Sheila Rowbotham & Swasti Mitter (Eds), Dignity and Daily Bread: New Forms of Economic Organizing among Poor Women in the Third World and the First (Routledge, 1994).
106. For a study of resistance, see Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia (State University of New York Press, 1987), and for case studies of women's economic organising, see Sheila Rowbotham & Swasti Mitter (Eds), Dignity and Daily Bread: New Forms of Economic Organizing among Poor Women in the Third World and the First (Routledge, 1994).
107. Maria Mies, The Lacemakers of Narsapur (Zed, 1982); Lourdes Beneria & Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (University of Chicago Press, 1987).
108. Maria Mies, The Lacemakers of Narsapur (Zed, 1982); Lourdes Beneria & Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (University of Chicago Press, 1987).
109. There is now a huge literature on structural adjustment. For a discussion of what structural adjustment entails, see Pamela Sparr, 'What is structural adjustment?', in: Sparr (Ed.), Mortgaging Women's Lives: Feminist Critiques of Structural Adjustment (Zed, 1994), pp. 1-9.
110. There are now quite a large number of critiques of structural adjustment by feminists. See for example Diane E'son, 'From survival needs to transformation strategies: women's needs and structural adjustment', in: Lourdes Beneria & Shirley Feldman (Eds), Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty and Women's Work (Westview, 1992), pp. 26-48; Frances Stewart, 'Can adjustment programmes incorporate the interests of women?', in: Haleh Afshar & Carolynne Dennis (Eds), Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World (Macmillan, 1992), pp. 13-45; and Pamela Sparr, 'Feminist critiques of structural adjustment', in: Sparr, Mortgaging Women's Lives, pp. 13-39.
111. There are now quite a large number of critiques of structural adjustment by feminists. See for example Diane E'son, 'From survival needs to transformation strategies: women's needs and structural adjustment', in: Lourdes Beneria & Shirley Feldman (Eds), Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty and Women's Work (Westview, 1992), pp. 26-48; Frances Stewart, 'Can adjustment programmes incorporate the interests of women?', in: Haleh Afshar & Carolynne Dennis (Eds), Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World (Macmillan, 1992), pp. 13-45; and Pamela Sparr, 'Feminist critiques of structural adjustment', in: Sparr, Mortgaging Women's Lives, pp. 13-39.
112. There are now quite a large number of critiques of structural adjustment by feminists. See for example Diane E'son, 'From survival needs to transformation strategies: women's needs and structural adjustment', in: Lourdes Beneria & Shirley Feldman (Eds), Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty and Women's Work (Westview, 1992), pp. 26-48; Frances Stewart, 'Can adjustment programmes incorporate the interests of women?', in: Haleh Afshar & Carolynne Dennis (Eds), Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World (Macmillan, 1992), pp. 13-45; and Pamela Sparr, 'Feminist critiques of structural adjustment', in: Sparr, Mortgaging Women's Lives, pp. 13-39.
113. Diane Elson has attempted to rectify some of the most glaring errors and omissions by discussing strategies for introducing gender analysis into these models in 'Gender Awareness in Modelling Structural Adjustment', World Development, Vol. 23, No. 11 (1995), pp. 1851-68.
114. Ingrid Palmer has taken up notions of efficiency and its meaning from a gendered perspective in 'Gender, equity and economic efficiency in adjustment programmes', in: Afshar & Dennis, Women and Adjustment Policies pp. 69-83.
115. For a discussion of some of these factors, see Diane Elson, 'Male bias in macro economics: the case of structural adjustment', in: Elson, Male Bias in the Development Process, pp. 164-90.
116. For a general discussion, see Diane Elson, 'Household responses to stabilization and structural adjustment: male bias at the micro level', in: Elson, Male Bias in the Development Process, pp. 211-52, and for a case study, see Aili Mari Tripp, 'The impact of crisis and economic reform on women in urban Tanzania', in: Beneria & Feldman, Unequal Burden, pp. 159-80.
117. For a general discussion, see Diane Elson, 'Household responses to stabilization and structural adjustment: male bias at the micro level', in: Elson, Male Bias in the Development Process, pp. 211-52, and for a case study, see Aili Mari Tripp, 'The impact of crisis and economic reform on women in urban Tanzania', in: Beneria & Feldman, Unequal Burden, pp. 159-80.
118. For a discussion of this, see Caroline Moser, 'Adjustment from below: low income women, time and the triple role in Guayaquil, Ecuador', in: Afshar & Dennis, Women and Adjustment Policies, pp. 87-116.
119. For example, in the case of Chile women's employment in the fruit and fish processing industries has increased significantly. See Georgina Waylen, 'Women, authoritarianism and market liberalisation in Chile 1973-89', in: Afshar & Dennis, Women and Adjustment Policies, pp. 150-78.