The Multidisciplinary Management of Rectal Cancer

Surgical Clinics of North America

Volumn 89, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 177-215

  Meredith, Kenneth L ^a   Hoffe, Sarah E ^a   Shibata, David ^a  

^a H LEE MOFFITT CANCER CENTER AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Adjuvant chemotherapy; Multidisciplinary; Radiation therapy; Rectal cancer; Surgery

Indexed keywords

BEVACIZUMAB; CAPECITABINE; CETUXIMAB; DIHYDROPYRIMIDINE DEHYDROGENASE; DNA TOPOISOMERASE; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR KINASE INHIBITOR; FLUOROURACIL; FOLINIC ACID; IRINOTECAN; K RAS PROTEIN; LEVAMISOLE; OXALIPLATIN; PANITUMUMAB; SEMUSTINE; UFT; VINCRISTINE;

ACNE LIKE RASH; ADD ON THERAPY; ALOPECIA; BLADDER DYSFUNCTION; BLOOD TOXICITY; BOLUS INJECTION; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CANCER ADJUVANT THERAPY; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER LOCALIZATION; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER PALLIATIVE THERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURGERY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLON RESECTION; COLORECTAL SURGERY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIARRHEA; DIGITAL RECTAL EXAMINATION; DOSAGE SCHEDULE COMPARISON; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DOSAGE FORM COMPARISON; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DRY SKIN; FEMUR NECK FRACTURE; FISTULA; GASTROINTESTINAL TOXICITY; HAND FOOT SYNDROME; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION; INTRAOPERATIVE RADIOTHERAPY; LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; LAPAROSCOPY; LIVER METASTASIS; LIVER TOXICITY; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; METASTASIS; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUTROPENIA; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PARESTHESIA; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; PATIENT CARE; PELVIS FRACTURE; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREOPERATIVE CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROTEINURIA; RADIATION DOSE; RASH; RECTOSCOPY; RECTUM ABDOMINOPERINEAL RESECTION; RECTUM CANCER; RECTUM CARCINOMA; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; SKIN FISSURE; SKIN TOXICITY; STOMATITIS; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TOTAL COLON RESECTION; TRANSRECTAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT RESPONSE; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; XEROSIS;

ANTIMETABOLITES, ANTINEOPLASTIC; CHEMOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SURGICAL PROCEDURES; FLUOROURACIL; HUMANS; LIVER NEOPLASMS; NEOADJUVANT THERAPY; NEOPLASM INVASIVENESS; NEOPLASM RECURRENCE, LOCAL; NEOPLASM STAGING; RADIOTHERAPY DOSAGE; RADIOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; RECTAL NEOPLASMS;

EID: 58749099151     PISSN: 00396109     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.suc.2008.09.021     Document Type: Review

References (277)

1. Jemal A., Siegel R., Ward E., et al. Cancer statistics, 2008. CA Cancer J Clin 58 1 (2008) 71-96
2. Wolpin B.M., Meyerhardt J.A., Mamon H.J., et al. Adjuvant treatment of colorectal cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 57 3 (2007) 168-185
3. Ellenhorn D, Coia L, Alberts S, et al, editors. Colorectal and anal cancers. Coia L, Hoskins W, editors. Cancer management: a multidisciplinary approach. Melville (NY): PRR Inc; 2002.
4. Cohen S.M., Neugut A.I., Cohen S.M., et al. Adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer in the elderly. Drugs Aging 21 7 (2004) 437-451
5. Nelson H., Petrelli N., and Carlin A. Guidelines 2000 for colon and rectal cancer surgery. J Natl Cancer Inst 93 8 (2001) 583-596
6. Tjandra J.J., Kilkenny J.W., Buie W.D., et al. Practice parameters for the management of rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 48 3 (2005) 411-423
7. Pilipshen S.J., Heilweil M., Quan S.H., et al. Patterns of pelvic recurrence following definitive resections of rectal cancer. Cancer 53 (1984) 1354-1362
8. Glynne-Jones R., Mathur P., Elton C., et al. The multidisciplinary management of gastrointestinal cancer. Multimodal treatment of rectal cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 21 6 (2007) 1049-1070
9. Adam I.J., Mohamdee M.O., Martin I.G., et al. Role of circumferential margin involvement in the local recurrence of rectal cancer. Lancet 344 8924 (1994) 707-711
10. Arbman G., Nilsson E., Hallbook O., et al. Local recurrence following total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Br J Surg 83 3 (1996) 375-379
11. Goligher J.C., Dukes C.E., and Bussey H.J. Local recurrences after sphincter saving excisions for carcinoma of the rectum and rectosigmoid. Br J Surg 39 155 (1951) 199-211
12. de Haas-Kock D.F., Baeten C.G., Jager J.J., et al. Prognostic significance of radial margins of clearance in rectal cancer. Br J Surg 83 6 (1996) 781-785
13. Rich T., Gunderson L.L., Lew R., et al. Patterns of recurrence of rectal cancer after potentially curative surgery. Cancer 52 7 (1983) 1317-1329
14. Wolmark N., and Fisher B. An analysis of survival and treatment failure following abdominoperineal and sphincter-saving resection in Dukes' B and C rectal carcinoma. A report of the NSABP clinical trials. National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project. Ann Surg 204 4 (1986) 480-489
15. In: Greene F., Page D., and Fleming I. (Eds). AJCC cancer staging handbook. 6th edition (2002), Springer, New York
16. Greene F.L., Stewart A.K., and Norton H.J. New tumor-node-metastasis staging strategy for node-positive (stage III) rectal cancer: an analysis. J Clin Oncol 22 10 (2004) 1778-1784
17. Meyerhardt J.A., and Mayer R.J. Systemic therapy for colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 352 5 (2005) 476-487
18. O'Connell J.B., Maggard M.A., and Ko C.Y. Colon cancer survival rates with the new American Joint Committee on Cancer sixth edition staging. J Natl Cancer Inst 96 19 (2004) 1420-1425
19. Hideya T, Tomohiro T, Nagasaki S, et al. Synchronous multiple colorectal adenocarcinomas. Journal of Surgical Oncology 1997;64:304-7.
20. Fukatsua H., Katoa J., Nasub J., et al. Clinical characteristics of synchronous colorectal cancer are different according to tumour location. Dig Liver Dis 39 1 (2007) 40-46
21. Stocchi L., Nelson H., Sargent D.J., et al. Impact of surgical and pathologic variables in rectal cancer: a United States community and cooperative group report. J Clin Oncol 19 18 (2001) 3895-3902
22. Higgins G.A., Humphrey E.W., Dwight R.W., et al. Preoperative radiation and surgery for cancer of the rectum. Veterans Administration Surgical Oncology Group Trial II. Cancer 58 2 (1986) 352-359
23. Roswit B., Higgins G.A., and Keehn R.J. Preoperative irradiation for carcinoma of the rectum and rectosigmoid colon: report of a National Veterans Administration randomized study. Cancer 35 6 (1975) 1597-1602
24. Folkesson J., Birgisson H., Pahlman L., et al. Swedish rectal cancer trial: long lasting benefits from radiotherapy on survival and local recurrence rate. J Clin Oncol 23 24 (2005) 5644-5650
25. Wong R.K.S., Tandan V., De Silva S., et al. Pre-operative radiotherapy and curative surgery for the management of localized rectal carcinoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 (2007) CD002102
26. Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 336 14 (1997) 980-987
27. Kim N.K., Baik S.H., Seong J.S., et al. Oncologic outcomes after neoadjuvant chemoradiation followed by curative resection with tumor-specific mesorectal excision for fixed locally advanced rectal cancer: impact of postirradiated pathologic downstaging on local recurrence and survival. Ann Surg 244 6 (2006) 1024-1030
28. Boller A.-M., and Cima R.R. Impact of pre- and postoperative multimodality therapy on rectal cancer. J Surg Oncol 96 8 (2007) 665-670
29. Kapiteijn E., Marijnen C.A., Nagtegaal I.D., et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 345 9 (2001) 638-646
30. Brown G., Davies S., Williams G.T., et al. Effectiveness of preoperative staging in rectal cancer: digital rectal examination, endoluminal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging?. Br J Cancer 91 1 (2004) 23-29
31. Zoumpoulis P., Tragea H., Pahos K., et al. How to efficiently perform transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) and TRUS guided biopsy of the prostate. Ultrasound Med Biol 32 Suppl 5 (2006) 248
32. Bipat S., Glas A.S., Slors F.J., et al. Rectal cancer: local staging and assessment of lymph node involvement with endoluminal US, CT, and MR imaging-a meta-analysis. Radiology 232 3 (2004) 773-783
33. Hulsmans F.J., Tio T.L., Fockens P., et al. Assessment of tumor infiltration depth in rectal cancer with transrectal sonography: caution is necessary. [see comment]. Radiology 190 3 (1994) 715-720
34. Siddiqui A., Fayiga Y., and Huerta S. The role of endoscopic ultrasound in the evaluation of rectal cancer. Int Semin Surg Oncol 3 36 (2006) 1-7
35. Beynon J., Foy D.M., Roe A.M., et al. Endoluminal ultrasound in the assessment of local invasion in rectal cancer. Br J Surg 73 6 (1986) 474-477
36. Hunerbein M., Pegios W., Rau B., et al. Prospective comparison of endorectal ultrasound, three-dimensional endorectal ultrasound, and endorectal MRI in the preoperative evaluation of rectal tumors. Preliminary results. Surg Endosc 14 11 (2000) 1005-1009
37. Karantanas A.H., Yarmenitis S., Papanikolaou N., et al. Preoperative imaging staging of rectal cancer. Dig Dis 25 1 (2007) 20-32
38. Meyenberger C., Huch Boni R.A., Bertschinger P., et al. Endoscopic ultrasound and endorectal magnetic resonance imaging: a prospective, comparative study for preoperative staging and follow-up of rectal cancer. Endoscopy 27 7 (1995) 469-479
39. Starck M., Bohe M., Fork F.T., et al. Endoluminal ultrasound and low-field magnetic resonance imaging are superior to clinical examination in the preoperative staging of rectal cancer. Eur J Surg 161 11 (1995) 841-845
40. Tankova L., Kadnian K., Draganov V., et al. [Endoluminal echography in rectal cancer-preoperative staging and postoperative control]. Khirurgiia 59 5 (2003) 26-30 [Russian]
41. Kulinna C., Scheidler J., Strauss T., et al. Local staging of rectal cancer: assessment with double-contrast multislice computed tomography and transrectal ultrasound. J Comput Assist Tomogr 28 1 (2004) 123-130
42. Hulsmans F., Bosma A., Mulder P., et al. Perirectal lymph nodes in rectal cancer: in vitro correlation of sonographic parameters and histopathologic findings. Radiology 184 (1992) 553-560
43. Beynon J., Mortensen N.J., Foy D.M., et al. Pre-operative assessment of local invasion in rectal cancer: digital examination, endoluminal sonography or computed tomography?. Br J Surg 73 12 (1986) 1015-1017
44. Brown G., Radcliffe A.G., Newcombe R.G., et al. Preoperative assessment of prognostic factors in rectal cancer using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Surg 90 3 (2003) 355-364
45. Gualdi G.F., Casciani E., Guadalaxara A., et al. Local staging of rectal cancer with transrectal ultrasound and endorectal magnetic resonance imaging: comparison with histologic findings. Dis Colon Rectum 43 3 (2000) 338-345
46. Hildebrandt U., and Feifel G. Preoperative staging of rectal cancer by intrarectal ultrasound. Dis Colon Rectum 28 1 (1985) 42-46
47. Orrom W.J., Wong W.D., Rothenberger D.A., et al. Endorectal ultrasound in the preoperative staging of rectal tumors. A learning experience. Dis Colon Rectum 33 8 (1990) 654-659
48. Brown G., Richards C.J., and Bourne M.W. Morphologic predictors of lymph node status in rectal cancer with use of high-spatial-resolution MR imaging with histopathologic comparison. Radiology 227 2 (2003) 371-377
49. Brown G., Kirkham A., Williams G.T., et al. High-resolution MRI of the anatomy important in total mesorectal excision of the rectum. AJR Am J Roentgenol 182 2 (2004) 431-439
50. Chun H.K., Choi D., Kim M.J., et al. Preoperative staging of rectal cancer: comparison of 3-T high-field MRI and endorectal sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 187 6 (2006) 1557-1562
51. Mercury Study Group. Extramural depth of tumor invasion at thin-section MR in patients with rectal cancer: results of the MERCURY study. Radiology 243 1 (2007) 132-139
52. Wieder H.A., Rosenberg R., Lordick F., et al. Rectal cancer: MR imaging before neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy for prediction of tumor-free circumferential resection margins and long-term survival. Radiology 243 3 (2007) 744-751
53. Satoshi A., Masaru M., Hiroshi I., et al. Resection of hepatic and pulmonary metastases in patients with colorectal carcinoma. Cancer 82 2 (2000) 274-278
54. Yoo P.S., Lopez R.I., Longo W.E., et al. Liver resection for metastatic colorectal cancer in the age of neoadjuvant therapy and bevacizumab. Clin Colorectal Cancer 6 (2006) 202-207
55. Sundermeyeer M., Meropol N.J., Rogatko A., et al. Changing patterns of colorectal metastases: a 10-year retrospective review (abstract). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 23 (2004) 257a
56. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Rectal Cancer 3 (2008) 1-69
57. Nahas C.S., Ankhurst T., Yeung H., et al. Positron emission tomography detection of distant metastatic or synchronous disease in patients with locally advanced rectal cancer receiving preoperative chemoradiation. Ann Surg Oncol 15 4 (2008) 704-711
58. Gearhart S.L., Frassica D., Rosen R., et al. Improved staging with pretreatment positron emission tomography/computed tomography in low rectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 13 3 (2006) 397-404
59. Miles E.W. A method of performing abdominoperineal excision for carcinoma of the rectum and the terminal portion of the pelvic colon. Lancet 2 (1908) 1812-1813
60. Yeatman T.J., and Bland K.I. Sphincter-saving procedures for distal carcinoma of the rectum. Ann Surg 209 1 (1989) 1-18
61. Dixon C.F. Surgical removal of lesions occurring in the sigmoid and rectosigmoid. Am J Surg 46 (1939) 12-17
62. Mayo C.W., Laberge M.Y., and Hardy W.M. Five-year survival after anterior resection for carcinoma of the rectum and rectosigmoid. Surg Gynecol Obstet 105 (1958) 695-698
63. Fain S.N., Patin S., and Morganstern L. Use of mechanical apparatus in low colorectal anastomosis. Arch Surg 110 (1975) 1079-1082
64. Baik S.H., Kim N.K., Lee K.Y., et al. Hand-sewn coloanal anastomosis for distal rectal cancer: long-term clinical outcomes. J Gastrointest Surg 9 6 (2005) 775-780
65. Bolognese A., Cardi M., Muttillo I.A., et al. Total mesorectal excision for surgical treatment of rectal cancer. J Surg Oncol 74 1 (2000) 21-23
66. Gamagami R.A., Liagre A., Chiotasso P., et al. Coloanal anastomosis for distal third rectal cancer: prospective study of oncologic results. Dis Colon Rectum 42 10 (1999) 1272-1275
67. Hall N.R., Finan P.J., al-Jaberi T., et al. Circumferential margin involvement after mesorectal excision of rectal cancer with curative intent. Predictor of survival but not local recurrence?. Dis Colon Rectum 41 8 (1998) 979-983
68. Lavery I.C., Lopez-Kostner F., Fazio V.W., et al. Chances of cure are not compromised with sphincter-saving procedures for cancer of the lower third of the rectum. Surgery 122 4 (1997) 779-784
69. Pollett W.G., and Nicholls R.J. The relationship between the extent of distal clearance and survival and local recurrence rates after curative anterior resection for carcinoma of the rectum. Ann Surg 198 2 (1983) 159-163
70. Tytherleigh M.G., Warren B.F., and Mortensen N.J. Management of early rectal cancer. Br J Surg 95 4 (2008) 409-423
71. Merchant N.B., Guillem J.G., Paty P.B., et al. T3N0 rectal cancer: results following sharp mesorectal excision and no adjuvant therapy. J Gastrointest Surg 3 6 (1999) 642-647
72. Leo E., Belli F., Andreola S., et al. Total rectal resection, mesorectum excision, and coloendoanal anastomosis: a therapeutic option for the treatment of low rectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 3 4 (1996) 336-343
73. Heald R.J., Husband E.M., and Ryal R.D. The mesorectum in rectal cancer surgery-clue to pelvic recurrence?. Br J Surg 69 (1982) 613-618
74. Heald R.J. Rectal cancer: the surgical options. Eur J Cancer 31 (1995) 1189-1192
75. Scott N., Jackson P., al-Jaberi T., et al. Total mesorectal excision and local recurrence: a study of tumour spread in the mesorectum distal to rectal cancer. Br J Surg 82 8 (1995) 1031-1033
76. Hida J., Yasutomi M., Maruyama T., et al. Lymph node metastases detected in the mesorectum distal to carcinoma of the rectum by the clearing method: justification of total mesorectal excision. J Am Coll Surg 184 6 (1997) 584-588
77. Bokey E.L., Ojerskog B., Chapuis P.H., et al. Local recurrence after curative excision of the rectum for cancer without adjuvant therapy: role of total anatomical dissection. Br J Surg 86 9 (1999) 1164-1170
78. Vernava A.M., Moran M., Rothenberger D.A., et al. A prospective evaluation of distal margins in carcinoma of the rectum. Surg Gynecol Obstet 175 (1992) 333-336
79. Black W.A., and Waugh J.M. The intramural extension of carcinoma of the descending colon, sigmoid, and rectosigmoid: a pathologic study. Surg Gynecol Obstet 87 (1948) 457-464
80. Williams N.S., Dixon M.F., and Johnson D. Reappraisal of the 5 cm rule of distal excision for carcinoma of the rectum; a study of distal intramural spread and of patients' survival. Br J Surg 70 (1983) 150-154
81. Grinnell R.S. Lymphatic block with atypical and retrograde lymphatic metastasis and spread in carcinoma of the colon and rectum. Ann Surg 163 (1966) 272-280
82. Guillem J.G. Ultra-low anterior resection and coloanal pouch reconstruction for carcinoma of the distal rectum. World J Surg 21 7 (1997) 721-727
83. Hassan I., Larson D.W., Cima R.R., et al. Long-term functional and quality of life outcomes after coloanal anastomosis for distal rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 49 9 (2006) 1266-1274
84. Tytherleigh M.G., Mc C.M.N.J., Tytherleigh M.G., et al. Options for sphincter preservation in surgery for low rectal cancer. Br J Surg 90 8 (2003) 922-933
85. Rullier E., Zerbib F., Laurent C., et al. Intersphincteric resection with excision of internal anal sphincter for conservative treatment of very low rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 42 (1999) 1168-1175
86. Bretagnol F., Rullier E., Laurent C., et al. Comparison of functional results and quality of life between intersphincteric resection and conventional coloanal anastomosis for low rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 47 (2004) 832-838
87. Ho Y.H., Seow-Choen F., Tan M., et al. Colonic J-pouch function at six months versus straight coloanal anastomosis at two years: randomized controlled trial. World J Surg 25 7 (2001) 876-881
88. Rullier E., Laurent C., Bretagnol F., et al. Sphincter saving resection: end of the 2 cm rule?. Ann Surg 242 6 (2005) 903-904
89. Nagtegaal I.D., and Quirke P. What is the role for the circumferential margin in the modern treatment of rectal cancer?. J Clin Oncol 26 2 (2008) 303-312
90. Quirke P., Durdey P., Dixon M.F., et al. Local recurrence of rectal adenocarcinoma due to inadequate surgical resection. Histopathological study of lateral tumour spread and surgical excision. Lancet 2 8514 (1986) 996-999
91. Cawthorn S.J., Parums D.V., Gibbs N.M., et al. Extent of mesorectal spread and involvement of lateral resection margin as prognostic factors after surgery for rectal cancer. [see comment]. Lancet 335 8697 (1990) 1055-1059
92. Fujita S., Yamamoto S., Akasu T., et al. Lateral pelvic lymph node dissection for advanced lower rectal cancer. Br J Surg 90 12 (2003) 1580-1585
93. Shiozawa M., Akaike M., Yamada R., et al. Lateral lymph node dissection for lower rectal cancer. Hepatogastroenterology 54 76 (2007) 1066-1070
94. Kim J.C., Takahashi K., Yu C.S., et al. Comparative outcome between chemoradiotherapy and lateral pelvic lymph node dissection following total mesorectal excision in rectal cancer. Ann Surg 246 5 (2007) 754-762
95. Mann B. Lateral lymph node dissection in rectal cancer patients: is there any indication?. Int J Colorectal Dis 19 3 (2004) 195-196
96. Nagawa H., Muto T., Sunouchi K., et al. Randomized, controlled trial of lateral node dissection vs. nerve-preserving resection in patients with rectal cancer after preoperative radiotherapy. Dis Colon Rectum 44 9 (2001) 1274-1280
97. Kumar A. Observations on rectal cancer practice in Japan. Eur J Surg Oncol 29 7 (2002) 630-631
98. Michelassi F., and Block G. Morbidity and mortality of wide pelvic lymphadenectomy for rectal adenocarcinoma. Dis Colon Rectum 35 12 (1992) 1143-1147
99. Kyo K., Sameshima S., Takahashi M., et al. Impact of autonomic nerve preservation and lateral node dissection on male urogenital function after total mesorectal excision for lower rectal cancer. World J Surg 30 6 (2006) 1014-1019
100. Guillou P.J., Quirke P., Thorpe H., et al. JM, MRC CLASICC Trial Group. Short-term endpoints of conventional versus laparoscopic assisted surgery in patients with colorectal cancer (MRC CLASICC trial): multicentre, randomized controlled study. Lancet 365 (2005) 1718-1729
101. Clinical Outcomes of Surgical Therapy Study Group. A comparison of laparoscopically assisted and open colectomy for colon cancer. N Engl J Med 350 20 (2004) 2050-2059
102. Veldkamp R., Kuhry E., and Hop W.C. Colon cancer Laparoscopic or Open Resection Study Group (COLOR). Laparoscopic surgery versus open surgery for colon cancer: short-term outcomes of a randomized trial. Lancet Oncol 6 7 (2005) 477-484
103. Lacy A.M., Garcia-Valdecasas J.C., and Delgado S. Laparoscopy-assisted colectomy versus open colectomy for treatment of non-metastatic colon cancer: a randomised trial. Lancet Oncol 359 (2002) 2224-2229
104. Leung K.L., Kwok S.P., Lau W.Y., et al. Laparoscopic-assisted abdominoperineal resection for low rectal adenocarcinoma. Surg Endosc 14 1 (2000) 67-70
105. Liang J.T., Lai H.S., Lee P.H., et al. Laparoscopic pelvic autonomic nerve-preserving surgery for patients with lower rectal cancer after chemoradiation therapy. Ann Surg Oncol 14 4 (2007) 1285-1287
106. Reza M.M., Blasco J.A., Andradas E., et al. Systematic review of laparoscopic versus open surgery for colorectal cancer. Br J Surg 93 8 (2006) 921-928
107. Wagman L.D. Laparoscopic and open surgery for colorectal cancer: reaching equipoise?. J Clin Oncol 25 21 (2007) 2996-2998
108. Rullier E., Sa Cunha A., and Couderc P. Laparoscopic intersphincteric resection with coloplasty and coloanal anastomosis for mid and low rectal cancer. Br J Surg 90 4 (2003) 445-451
109. Boller A.M., and Nelson H. Colon and rectal cancer: laparoscopic or open?. Clin Cancer Res 13 22 (2007) 6894-6896
110. Sengupta S., and Tjandra J.J. Local excision of rectal cancer: what is the evidence?. Dis Colon Rectum 44 9 (2001) 1345-1361
111. Heintz A., Morschel M., and Junginger T. Comparison of results after transanal endoscopic microsurgery and radical resection for T1 carcinoma of the rectum. Surg Endosc 12 9 (1998) 1145-1148
112. Palma P., Freudenberg S., Samel S., et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery: indications and results after 100 cases. Colorectal Dis 6 5 (2004) 350-355
113. Varma M.G., Rogers S.J., Schrock T.R., et al. Local excision of rectal carcinoma. Arch Surg 134 8 (1999) 863-868
114. Winde G., Nottberg H., Kellerr Schmid K.W., et al. Surgical cure for early rectal carcinomas (T1). Transanal endoscopic microsurgery vs. anterior resection. Dis Colon Rectum 39 9 (1996) 969-976
115. Bleday R. Local excision of rectal cancer. World J Surg 21 7 (1997) 706-714
116. Morson B.C., Bussey H.J., and Samoorian S. Policy of local excision for early cancer of the colorectum. Gut 18 12 (1977) 1045-1050
117. Bleday R. Local excision of small distal rectal cancers. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 15 (2002) 163-168
118. Greenberg J., and Bleday R. Local excision of rectal cancer oncologic results. Semin Colon Rectal Surg 16 1 (2005) 40-46
119. Garcia-Aguilar J., Mellgren A., and Sirivongs P. Local excision of rectal cancer without adjuvant therapy: a word of caution. Ann Surg 231 3 (2000) 345-351
120. Madbouly K.M., Remzi F.H., Erkek B.A., et al. Recurrence after transanal excision of T1 rectal cancer: should we be concerned?. Dis Colon Rectum 48 4 (2005) 711-721
121. Chakravarti A., Compton C.C., Shellito P.C., et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with rectal cancer managed by local excision with and without adjuvant irradiation. Ann Surg 230 1 (1999) 49-54
122. Lezoche E., Guerrieri M., Paganini A., et al. Is transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) a valid treatment for rectal tumors?. Surg Endosc 10 7 (1996) 736-741
123. Mellgren A., Sirivongs P., Rothenberger D.A., et al. Is local excision adequate therapy for early rectal cancer?. Dis Colon Rectum 43 8 (2000) 1064-1074
124. Minsky B.D., Rich T., Recht A., et al. Selection criteria for local excision with or without adjuvant radiation therapy for rectal cancer. Cancer 63 7 (1989) 1421-1429
125. Koscinski T., Malinger S., Drews M., et al. Local excision of rectal carcinoma not-exceeding the muscularis layer. Colorectal Dis 5 2 (2003) 159-163
126. Greenberg J.A., Shibata D., Herndon J.E., et al. Local excision of distal rectal cancer: an update of cancer and leukemia group b 8984. Dis Colon Rectum (2008) 1-10
127. Steele Jr. G.D., Herndon J.E., Bleday R., et al. Sphincter-sparing treatment for distal rectal adenocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 6 5 (1999) 433-441
128. Enker W.E., Thaler H.T., Cranor M.L., et al. Total mesorectal excision in the operative treatment of carcinoma of the rectum. J Am Coll Surg 181 4 (1995) 335-346
129. Maas C.P., Moriya Y., Steup W.H., et al. A prospective study on radical and nerve-preserving surgery for rectal cancer in the Netherlands. Eur J Surg Oncol 26 8 (2000) 751-757
130. Masui H., Ike H., Yamaguchi S., et al. Male sexual function after autonomic nerve-preserving operation for rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 39 10 (1996) 1140-1145
131. Shirouzu K., Ogata Y., Araki Y., et al. Oncologic and functional results of total mesorectal excision and autonomic nerve-preserving operation for advanced lower rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 47 9 (2004) 1442-1447
132. Neary P., Makin G.B., White T.J., et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery: a viable operative alternative in selected patients with rectal lesions. Ann Surg Oncol 10 9 (2003) 1106-1111
133. Gavagan J.A., Whiteford M.H., Swanstrom L.L., et al. Full-thickness intraperitoneal excision by transanal endoscopic microsurgery does not increase short-term complications. Am J Surg 187 5 (2004) 630-634
134. Kennedy M.L., Lubowski D.Z., King D.W., et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery excision: is anorectal function compromised?. Dis Colon Rectum 45 5 (2002) 601-604
135. Lee W., Lee D., Choi S., et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery and radical surgery for T1 and T2 rectal cancer. Surg Endosc 17 8 (2003) 1283-1287
136. Stipa F., Lucandri G., Ferri M., et al. Local excision of rectal cancer with transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM). Anticancer Res 24 2C (2004) 1167-1172
137. Wang H.S., Lin J.K., Yang S.H., et al. Prospective study of the functional results of transanal endoscopic microsurgery. Hepatogastroenterology 50 53 (2003) 1376-1380
138. Guillem J.G., Chessin D.B., Jeong S.Y., et al. Contemporary applications of transanal endoscopic microsurgery: technical innovations and limitations. Clin Colorectal Cancer 5 4 (2005) 268-273
139. Paty P.B., Nash G.M., Baron P., et al. Long-term results of local excision for rectal cancer. Ann Surg 236 4 (2002) 522-530
140. Friel C.M., Cromwell J.W., Marra C., et al. Salvage radical surgery after failed local excision for early rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 45 7 (2002) 875-879
141. Compton C., Fenoglio-Preiser C.M., Pettigrew N., et al. American Joint Committee on Cancer Prognostic Factors Consensus Conference: Colorectal Working Group. Cancer 88 7 (2000) 1739-1757
142. Krasna M.J., Flancbaum L., Cody R.P., et al. Vascular and neural invasion in colorectal carcinoma. Incidence and prognostic significance. Cancer 61 5 (1988) 1018-1023
143. Wanebo H.J., Rao B., Pinsky C.M., et al. Preoperative carcinoembryonic antigen level as a prognostic indicator in colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 299 9 (1978) 448-451
144. Nakagoe T., Sawai T., Ayabe H., et al. Prognostic value of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in tumor tissue of patients with colorectal cancer. Anticancer Res 21 4B (2001) 3031-3036
145. Wolmark N., Fisher B., Wieand H.S., et al. The prognostic significance of preoperative carcinoembryonic antigen levels in colorectal cancer. Results from NSABP (National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project) clinical trials. Ann Surg 199 4 (1984) 375-382
146. Le Voyer T.E., Sigurdson E.R., Hanlon A.L., et al. Colon cancer survival is associated with increasing number of lymph nodes analyzed: a secondary survey of intergroup trial INT-0089. J Clin Oncol 21 15 (2003) 2912-2919
147. Swanson R.S., Compton C.C., Stewart A.K., et al. The prognosis of T3N0 colon cancer is dependent on the number of lymph nodes examined. Ann Surg Oncol 10 1 (2003) 65-71
148. Tepper J.E., O'Connell M.J., Niedzwiecki D., et al. Impact of number of nodes retrieved on outcome in patients with rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 19 1 (2001) 157-163
149. Colorectal Cancer Working Party CR07. Pathology guided treatment in rectal cancer: a randomised trial comparing preoperative radiotherapy and selective postoperative chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer. Clinical Protocol (2005)
150. Nagetaal I.D., Van de Velde C.H., and Van der Worp E. Macroscopic evaluation of rectal cancer resection specimen: clinical significance of the pathologist in quality control. Pathology review committee for the cooperative clinical investigators of the Dutch colorectal group. J Clin Oncol 20 (2002) 1729-1734
151. Quirke P. Training and quality assurance for rectal cancer: 20 years of data is enough. Lancet Oncol 4 11 (2003) 695-701
152. Birbeck K.F., Macklin C.P., and Tiffin N.J. Rates of circumferential margin involvement vary between surgeons and predict outcomes in rectal cancer surgery. Ann Surg 235 (2002) 449-457
153. Chan A.K., Wong A., Jenken D., et al. Posttreatment TNM staging is a prognostic indicator or survival and recurrence in tethered or fixed rectal carcinoma after preoperative chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 61 3 (2005) 665-677
154. Chan K.W., Boey J., and Wong S.K.C. A method of reporting radial invasion and surgical clearance of rectal carcinoma. Histopathology 9 (1985) 1319-1327
155. Wibe A., Rendedal P.R., and Svensson E. Prognostic significance of the circumferential resection margin following total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Br J Surg 89 (2002) 327-334
156. Nagetaal I.D., Marijnen C.A.M., and Kranenbarg E.K. Circumferential margin involvement is still an important predictor of local recurrence in rectal carcinoma. Not one millimetre but two millimetres is the limit. Am J Surg Pathol 26 (2002) 350-357
157. Stipa F., Chessin D.B., and Shia J. A pathologic complete response of rectal cancer to preoperative combined-modality therapy results in improved oncological outcome with those who achieve no downstaging on the basis of preoperative endorectal ultrasonography. Ann Oncol 13 8 (2006) 1047-1053
158. Ahmad N.R., and Nagle D. Long-term results of preoperative radiation therapy alone for stage T3 and T4 rectal cancer. Br J Surg 84 10 (1997) 1445-1448
159. Mehta V.K., Poen J., Ford J., et al. Radiotherapy, concomitant protracted-venous-infusion 5-fluorouracil, and surgery for ultrasound-staged T3 or T4 rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 44 1 (2001) 52-58
160. García-Aguilar J., Hernandez de Anda E., Sirivongs P., et al. A pathologic complete response to preoperative chemoradiation is associated with lower local recurrence and improved survival in rectal cancer patients treated by mesorectal excision. Dis Colon Rectum 46 3 (2003) 298-304
161. Guillem J.G., Chessin D.B., Cohen A.M., et al. Long-term oncologic outcome following preoperative combined modality therapy and total mesorectal excision of locally advanced rectal cancer. Ann Surg 241 5 (2005) 829-836
162. Ruo L., Tickoo S., Klimstra D.S., et al. Long-term prognostic significance of extent of rectal cancer response to preoperative radiation and chemotherapy. Ann Surg 236 (2002) 75-81
163. Guillem J.G., Puig-La Calle Jr. J., and Akhurst T. Prospective assessment of primary rectal cancer response to preoperative radiation and chemotherapy using 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Dis Colon Rectum 43 (2000) 18-24
164. Nair R., Siegel E., Chen D.T., et al. Long-term results of transanal excision after neoadjuvant chemoradiation for T2 and T3 adenocarcinomas of the rectum. J Gastrointest Surg 12 (2008) 1797-1805
165. Gunderson L.L., and Sosin H. Areas of failure found at reoperation (second or symptomatic look) following "curative surgery" for adenocarcinoma of the rectum. Cancer 34 4 (1974) 1278-1292
166. Thomas P.R., and Lindblad A.S. Adjuvant postoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy in rectal carcinoma: a review of the Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group experience. Radiother Oncol 13 4 (1988) 245-252
167. Fisher B., Wolmark N., Rockette H., et al. Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapy for rectal cancer: results from NSABP protocol R-01. J Natl Cancer Inst 80 1 (1988) 21-29
168. Krook J.E., Moertel C.G., Gunderson L.L., et al. Effective surgical adjuvant therapy for high-risk rectal carcinoma. N Engl J Med 324 11 (1991) 709-715
169. O'Connell M., Martenson J.A., Wieand H.S., et al. Improving adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer by combining protracted-infusion fluorouracil with radiation therapy after curative surgery. N Engl J Med 333 8 (1994) 502-507
170. Wolmark N., Wieand H.S., Hyams D.M., et al. Randomized trial of postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy for carcinoma of the rectum: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Protocol R-02. [see comment]. J Natl Cancer Inst 92 5 (2000) 388-396
171. Cedermark B., Johansson H., Rutqvist L.E., et al. The Stockholm I trial of preoperative short term radiotherapy in operable rectal carcinoma. A prospective randomized trial. Cancer 75 9 (1995) 2269-2275
172. Holm T., Singnomklao T., Rutqvist L.E., et al. Adjuvant preoperative radiotherapy in patients with rectal carcinoma. Adverse effects during long term follow-up of two randomized trials. Cancer 78 5 (1996) 968-976
173. Martenson J.A., and Gunderson L.L. "Colon and rectum" principles and practice of radiation oncology. 2nd edition (1992), J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia
174. Minsky B.D. Adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer-the transatlantic view. Colorectal Dis 5 5 (2003) 416-422
175. Minsky B.D. Adjuvant therapy of resectable rectal cancer. Cancer Treat Rev 28 4 (2002) 181-188
176. Willett C.G., Warland G., Coen J., et al. Rectal cancer: the influence of tumor proliferation on response to preoperative irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 32 1 (1995) 57-61
177. Minsky B.D., Cohen A.M., Enker W.E., et al. Phase I/II trial of preoperative radiation therapy and coloanal anastomosis in distal invasive resectable rectal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 23 2 (1992) 387-392
178. Sauer R., Becker H., Hohenberger W., et al. German Rectal Cancer Study Group. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 351 17 (2004) 1731-1740
179. Dunst J., Reese T., Sutter T., et al. Phase I trial evaluating the concurrent combination of radiotherapy and capecitabine in rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 20 19 (2002) 3983-3991
180. Willett C.G., Czito B.G., and Tyler D.S. Intraoperative radiation therapy. J Clin Oncol 25 8 (2007) 971-977
181. Hahnloser D., Haddock M.G., and Nelson H. Intraoperative radiotherapy in the multimodality approach to colorectal cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 12 4 (2003) 993-1013
182. Valentini V., Morganti A.G., Gambacorta M.A., et al. Preoperative hyperfractionated chemoradiation for locally recurrent rectal cancer in patients previously irradiated to the pelvis: a multicentric phase II study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 64 4 (2006) 1129-1139
183. Ciernik I., Dizendorf E., Baumert B., et al. Radiation treatment planning with an integrated positron emission and computer tomography (PET/CT): a feasibility study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 57 3 (2003) 853-863
184. Laub W., Yan D., Robertson J., et al. Intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) in the radiotherapy treatment of colo-rectal cancer. J Radiother Pract 2 (2002) 189-198
185. Vijayakumar S., Narayan S., Yang C.C., et al. Introducing new technologies into the clinic. Front Radiat Ther Oncol 40 (2007) 180-192
186. De Gramont A., Boni C., and Navarro M. Oxaliplatin/5FU/LV in the adjuvant treatment of stage II and III colon cancer: efficacy results with median follow-up of 4 years. JCO 23 16S (2005) 3501
187. Gill S., Loprinzi C.L., Sargent D.J., et al. Pooled analysis of fluorouracil-based adjuvant therapy for stage II and III colon cancer: who benefits and by how much?. J Clin Oncol 22 10 (2004) 1797-1806
188. Lokich J.J., Ahlgren J.D., Gullo J.J., et al. A prospective randomized comparison of continuous infusion fluorouracil with a conventional bolus schedule in metastatic colorectal carcinoma: a Mid-Atlantic Oncology Program Study. J Clin Oncol 7 4 (1989) 425-432
189. Mamounas E., Wieand S., Wolmark N., et al. Comparative efficacy of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with Dukes' B versus Dukes' C colon cancer: results from four National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project adjuvant studies (C-01, C-02, C-03, and C-04). J Clin Oncol 17 5 (1999) 1349-1355
190. Hickish T., Boni C., and Navarro M. FOLFOX4 as adjuvant treatment for stage II colon cancer: subpopulation data from the MOSAIC trial. J Clin Oncol 22 Suppl (2004) [abstract 3619]
191. Grothey A., and Sargent D.J. FOLFOX for stage II colon cancer? A commentary on the recent FDA approval of oxaliplatin for adjuvant therapy of stage III colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 23 15 (2005) 3311-3313
192. Sobrero A., Guglielmi A., Grossi F., et al. Mechanism of action of fluoropyrimidines: relevance to the new developments in colorectal cancer chemotherapy. Semin Oncol 27 5 Suppl 10 (2000) 72-77
193. Poplin E.A., Benedetti J.K., Estes N.C., et al. Phase III Southwest Oncology Group 9415/Intergroup 0153 randomized trial of fluorouracil, leucovorin, and levamisole versus fluorouracil continuous infusion and levamisole for adjuvant treatment of stage III and high-risk stage II colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 23 9 (2005) 1819-1825
194. Dulabh K., Monga D., and O'Connell M. Surgical adjuvant therapy for colorectal cancer: current approaches and future directions. Ann Surg Oncol 13 (2006) 1021-1034
195. Bernini A., Deen K., Madoff R., et al. Preoperative adjuvant radiation with chemotherapy for rectal cancer: its impact on stage of disease and the role of endorectal ultrasound. Ann Surg Oncol 3 2 (1996) 131-135
196. Rainer F., and Gunther K. Adjuvant chemotherapy following neoadjuvant therapy of rectal cancer: the type of neoadjuvant therapy (chemoradiotherapy or radiotherapy) may be important for selection of patients. J Clin Oncol 26 3 (2008) 507-508
197. Enker W. The elusive goal of preoperative staging in rectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 11 (2004) 245-246
198. Bosset J.F., Collete L., and Calais G. Chemotherapy with preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 355 (2006) 1114-1123
199. Andre T., Boni C., Mounedji-Boudiaf L., et al. Oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin as adjuvant treatment for colon cancer. N Engl J Med 350 23 (2004) 2343-2351
200. Twelves C., Wong A., Nowacki M.P., et al. Capecitabine as adjuvant treatment for stage III colon cancer. N Engl J Med 352 26 (2005) 2696-2704
201. Moertel C.G., Fleming T.R., Macdonald J.S., et al. Intergroup study of fluorouracil plus levamisole as adjuvant therapy for stage II/Dukes' B2 colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 13 12 (1995) 2936-2943
202. Haller D.G., Lefkopoulou M., Macdonald J.S., et al. Some considerations concerning the dose and schedule of 5FU and leucovorin: toxicities of two dose schedules from the intergroup colon adjuvant trial (INT-0089). Adv Exp Med Biol 339 (1993) 51-56
203. Wolmark N., Rockette H., Mamounas E., et al. Clinical trial to assess the relative efficacy of fluorouracil and leucovorin, fluorouracil and levamisole, and fluorouracil, leucovorin, and levamisole in patients with Dukes' B and C carcinoma of the colon: results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project C-04. J Clin Oncol 17 11 (1999) 3553-3559
204. Zhang Z.G., Harstrick A., Rustum Y.M., et al. Modulation of fluoropyrimidines: role of dose and schedule of leucovorin administration. Semin Oncol 19 2 Suppl 3 (1992) 10-15
205. Moertel C.G., Fleming T.R., Macdonald J.S., et al. Levamisole and fluorouracil for adjuvant therapy of resected colon carcinoma. N Engl J Med 322 6 (1990) 352-358
206. Scheithauer W., Rosen H., Kornek G.V., et al. Randomised comparison of combination chemotherapy plus supportive care with supportive care alone in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. BMJ 306 6880 (1993) 752-755
207. Smyth J.F., Hardcastle J.D., Denton G., et al. Two phase III trials of tauromustine (TCNU) in advanced colorectal cancer. Ann Oncol 6 9 (1995) 948-949
208. Thirion P., Michiels S., Pignon J.P., et al. Modulation of fluorouracil by leucovorin in patients with advanced colorectal cancer: an updated meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol 22 18 (2004) 3766-3775
209. de Gramont A., Bosset J.F., Milan C., et al. Randomized trial comparing monthly low-dose leucovorin and fluorouracil bolus with bimonthly high-dose leucovorin and fluorouracil bolus plus continuous infusion for advanced colorectal cancer: a French intergroup study. J Clin Oncol 15 2 (1997) 808-815
210. Anonymous. Efficacy of intravenous continuous infusion of fluorouracil compared with bolus administration in advanced colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 16 1 (1998) 301-308
211. Hahn R.G., Moertel C.G., Schutt A.J., et al. A double-blind comparison of intensive course 5-flourouracil by oral vs. intravenous route in the treatment of colorectal carcinoma. Cancer 35 4 (1975) 1031-1035
212. Pentheroudakis G., Twelves C., Pentheroudakis G., et al. The rational development of capecitabine from the laboratory to the clinic. Anticancer Res 22 6B (2002) 3589-3596
213. Lembersky B.C., Wieand H.S., Petrelli N.J., et al. Oral uracil and tegafur plus leucovorin compared with intravenous fluorouracil and leucovorin in stage II and III carcinoma of the colon: results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Protocol C-06. J Clin Oncol 24 13 (2006) 2059-2064
214. Iyer L., Ratain M.J., Iyer L., et al. Clinical pharmacology of camptothecins. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 42 Suppl (1998) S31-S43
215. Rougier P., Van Cutsem E., Bajetta E., et al. Randomised trial of irinotecan versus fluorouracil by continuous infusion after fluorouracil failure in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Lancet 352 9138 (1998) 1407-1412
216. Van Cutsem E., Blijham G.H., Van Cutsem E., et al. Irinotecan versus infusional 5-fluorouracil: a phase III study in metastatic colorectal cancer following failure on first-line 5-fluorouracil. V302 Study Group. Semin Oncol 26 1 (1999) 13-20
217. Douillard J.Y., Cunningham D., Roth A.D., et al. Irinotecan combined with fluorouracil compared with fluorouracil alone as first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 355 9209 (2000) 1041-1047
218. Saltz L.B., Cox J.V., Blanke C., et al. Irinotecan plus fluorouracil and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. Irinotecan Study Group. N Engl J Med 343 13 (2000) 905-914
219. Saltz L.B., Niedzwieki D., and Hollis D. Irinotecan plus fluorouracil / leucovorin (IFL) versus fluorouracil / leucovorin (FL) in stage III colon cancer (intergroup trial CALGB C89803). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 22 Suppl (2004) 240s [abstract 3500]
220. Van Cutsem E., Labianca R., and Hossfeld G. Randomized phase III trial comparing infused irinotecan/5-fluorouracil (5-FU)/folinic acid (IF) versus 5-FU/FA (F) in stage III colon cancer patients (PETACC 3). J Clin Oncol 23 Suppl (2005) [abstract 8]
221. Ychou M.R., Raoul J.L., and Douillard J.Y. A phase III randomized trial of LV/5FU + CPT-11 vs LV/5FU alone in adjuvant high risk colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 23 Suppl (2005) [abstract 3502]
222. Raymond E., Chaney S.G., Taamma A., et al. Oxaliplatin: a review of preclinical and clinical studies. Ann Oncol 9 10 (1998) 1053-1071
223. Becouarn Y., Ychou M., Ducreux M., et al. Phase II trial of oxaliplatin as first-line chemotherapy in metastatic colorectal cancer patients. Digestive Group of French Federation of Cancer Centers. J Clin Oncol 16 8 (1998) 2739-2744
224. Tournigand C., Andre T., Achille E., et al. FOLFIRI followed by FOLFOX6 or the reverse sequence in advanced colorectal cancer: a randomized GERCOR study. J Clin Oncol 22 2 (2004) 229-237
225. Rothenberg M.L., Oza A.M., Bigelow R.H., et al. Superiority of oxaliplatin and fluorouracil-leucovorin compared with either therapy alone in patients with progressive colorectal cancer after irinotecan and fluorouracil-leucovorin: interim results of a phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 21 11 (2003) 2059-2069
226. Giacchetti S., Bjarnason G., Garufi C., et al. Phase III trial comparing 4-day chronomodulated therapy versus 2-day conventional delivery of fluorouracil, leucovorin, and oxaliplatin as first-line chemotherapy of metastatic colorectal cancer: the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Chronotherapy Group. J Clin Oncol 24 22 (2006) 3562-3569
227. Giacchetti S., Perpoint B., Zidani R., et al. Phase III multicenter randomized trial of oxaliplatin added to chronomodulated fluorouracil-leucovorin as first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 18 1 (2000) 136-147
228. de Gramont A., Figer A., Seymour M., et al. Leucovorin and fluorouracil with or without oxaliplatin as first-line treatment in advanced colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 18 16 (2000) 2938-2947
229. Andre T., Tournigand C., Achille E., et al. Adjuvant treatment of colon cancer MOSAIC study's main results. Bull Cancer 93 1 (2006) 5-9
230. Wolmark N., Wieand H.S., and Keubler J.P. A phase III trial comparing FULV to FULV + oxaliplatin in stage II or III carcinoma of the colon: results of NSABP protocol C-07. J Clin Oncol 23 Suppl (2005) [abstract 3500]
231. Sargent D.J., Wieand H.S., Haller D.G., et al. Disease-free survival versus overall survival as a primary end point for adjuvant colon cancer studies: individual patient data from 20,898 patients on 18 randomized trials. J Clin Oncol 23 34 (2005) 8664-8670
232. Baselga J. Why the epidermal growth factor receptor? The rationale for cancer therapy. Oncologist 7 (2002) 2-8
233. Spaulding D.C., and Spaulding B.O. Epidermal growth factor receptor expression and measurement in solid tumors. Semin Oncol 29 (2002) 45-54
234. Messa C., Russo F., Caruso M.G., et al. EGF, TGF-alpha, and EGF-R in human colorectal adenocarcinoma. Acta Oncol 37 3 (1998) 285-289
235. Mayer A., Takimoto M., Fritz E., et al. The prognostic significance of proliferating cell nuclear antigen, epidermal growth factor receptor, and mdr gene expression in colorectal cancer. Cancer 71 8 (1993) 2454-2460
236. Saltz L.B., Rubin J., Hochster N., et al. Cetuximab (IMC-C225) plus irinotecan (CPT-11) is active in cpt-11-refractory colorectal cancer (CRC) that expresses epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 20 (2001) 3a, Abstract 7
237. Cunningham D., Humblet Y., Siena S., et al. Cetuximab monotherapy and cetuximab plus irinotecan in irinotecan-refractory metastatic colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 351 4 (2004) 337-345
238. Malik I., Hecht J.R., and Patnaik A. Safety and efficacy of panitumumab monotherapy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 23 Suppl (2005) 251s [abstract 3520]
239. Peeters M, Van Cutsem E, Siena S. A phase 3, multicenter, randomized controlled trial of panitumamab plus best supportive care versus best supportive care alone in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Paper presented at: American Association for Cancer Research (AACR). Washington, DC; April 1, 2006. 2006:[abstract CP-1].
240. Amado R.G., Wolf M., Peeters M., et al. Wild-type KRAS is required for panitumumab efficacy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 26 10 (2008) 1626-1634
241. Lièvre A., Bachet J., Le Corre D., et al. KRAS mutation status is predictive of response to cetuximab therapy in colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 66 8 (2006) 3992-3995
242. Messersmith W., and Hidalgo M. Panitumumab, a monoclonal anti-epidermal growth factor receptor antibody in colorectal cancer: another one or the one. Clin Cancer Res 13 (2007) 4664-4666
243. Folkman J. Tumor angiogenesis: therapeutic implications. N Engl J Med 285 (1971) 1182-1186
244. Ferrara N., Gerber H.P., and LeCouter J. The biology of VEGF and its receptors. Nat Med 9 (2003) 669-676
245. Hurwitz H., Fehrenbacher L., Novotny W., et al. Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 350 23 (2004) 2335-2342
246. Giantonio B.J., Catalano P.J., Meropol N.J., et al. Bevacizumab in combination with oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin (FOLFOX4) for previously treated metastatic colorectal cancer: results from the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Study E3200. J Clin Oncol 25 12 (Apr 20 2007) 1539-1544
247. Ptok H., Meyer F., Marusch F., et al. Palliative stent implantation in the treatment of malignant colorectal obstruction. Surg Endosc 20 6 (2006) 909-914
248. Leitman I.M., Sullivan J.D., Brams D., et al. Multivariate analysis of morbidity and mortality from the initial surgical management of obstructing carcinoma of the colon. Surg Gynecol Obstet 174 (1992) 513-518
249. Sebastian S., Johnston S., Geoghegan T., et al. Pooled analysis of the efficacy and safety of self-expanding metal stenting in malignant colorectal obstruction. Am J Gastroenterol 99 (2004) 2051-2057
250. Simmons D.T., and Baron T.H. Technological insight: enteral stenting and new technology. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 2 (2005) 365-374
251. Suzuki N., Saunders B.P., Thomas-Gibson S., et al. Colorectal stenting for malignant and benign disease: outcomes in colorectal stenting. Dis Colon Rectum 47 7 (2004) 1201-1207
252. Hünerbein M., Krause M., Moesta K.T., et al. Palliation of malignant rectal obstruction with self-expanding metal stents. Surgery 137 1 (2005) 42-47
253. Van Cutsem E., Nordlinger B., and Adam R. Towards a pan-European consensus on the treatment of patients with colorectal liver metastasis. Eur J Cancer 42 (2006) 2212-2221
254. Choti M.A., Sitzmann J.V., and Tiburi M.F. Trends in long-term survival following liver resection for hepatic colorectal metastasis. Ann Surg 235 (2002) 759-766
255. Tsai M., Su Y., and Ho M. Clinicopathologic features and prognosis in resectable synchronous and metachronous colorectal liver metastasis. Ann Surg Oncol 14 (2007) 786-794
256. Nordlinger B., Van Cutsem E., Rougier P., et al. Does chemotherapy prior to liver resection increase the potential for cure in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer? A report from the European Colorectal Metastases Treatment Group. Eur J Cancer 43 14 (2007) 2037-2045
257. Hewes J., Dighe S., Morris R., et al. Preoperative chemotherapy and the outcome of liver resection for colorectal metastases. World J Surg 31 2 (2007) 353-364
258. Welsh F.K., Tilney H.S., Tekkis P.P., et al. Safe liver resection following chemotherapy for colorectal metastases is a matter of timing. Br J Cancer 96 (2007) 1037-1042
259. Reddy S., Pawlik T., Zorzi D., et al. Simultaneous resections of colorectal cancer and synchronous liver metastases: a multi-institutional analysis. Ann Surg Oncol 14 (2007) 3481-3491
260. Aschele C., Lonardi S., Aschele C., et al. Multidisciplinary treatment of rectal cancer: medical oncology. Ann Oncol 18 9 (2007) 114-121
261. Glynne-Jones R., Grainger J., and Harrison M. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy prior to preoperative chemoradiation or radiation in rectal cancer: should we be more cautious?. Br J Cancer 94 (2006) 363-371
262. Allen P.J., Kemeny N., Jarnagin W., et al. Importance of response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in patients undergoing resection of synchronous colorectal liver metastases. J Gastrointest Surg 7 1 (2007) 109-117
263. Kooby D.A., Fong Y., Suriawinata A., et al. Impact of steatosis on perioperative outcome following hepatic resection. J Gastrointest Surg 7 8 (2003) 1034-1044
264. Reddy S.K., Morse M., and Hurwitz H.I. Addition of bevacizumab to irinotecan and oxaliplatin-based preoperative chemotherapy regimens does not increase morbidity after resection of colorectal liver metastases. J Am Coll Surg 206 (2008) 96-106
265. Fernandez F.G., Ritter J., Goodwin J.W., et al. Effect of steatohepatitis associated with irinotecan or oxaliplatin pretreatment on resectability of hepatic colorectal metastases. J Am Coll Surg 200 6 (2005) 845-853
266. Vauthey J.N., Pawlik T.M., Ribero D., et al. Chemotherapy regimen predicts steatohepatitis and an increase in 90-day mortality after surgery for hepatic colorectal metastases. J Clin Oncol 24 13 (2006) 2065-2072
267. Marr R., Birbeck K., Garvican J., et al. The modern abdominoperineal excision: the next challenge after total mesorectal excision. Ann Surg 242 1 (2005) 74-82
268. Tzardi M., and Tzardi M. Role of total mesorectal excision and of circumferential resection margin in local recurrence and survival of patients with rectal carcinoma. Dig Dis 25 1 (2007) 51-55
269. Guillem J.G., Díaz-González J.A., Minsky B.D., et al. cT3N0 rectal cancer: potential overtreatment with preoperative chemoradiotherapy is warranted. J Clin Oncol 26 3 (2008) 368-373
270. Willett C.G., Hagan M., Daley W., et al. Changes of tumor proliferation of rectal cancer induced by preoperative 5-fluorouracil and irradiation. Dis Colon Rectum 41 1 (1998) 62-67
271. den Dulk M., Marijnen C.A., Putter H., et al. Risk factors for adverse outcome in patients with rectal cancer treated with an abdominoperineal resection in the total mesorectal excision trial. Ann Surg 246 1 (2007) 83-90
272. Habr-Gama A., Oliva Perez R., Nadalin W., et al. Operative versus nonoperative treatment for stage 0 distal rectal cancer following chemoradiation therapy: long-term results. Ann Surg 240 4 (2004) 711-718
273. Hiotis S.P., Weber S.M., Cohen A.M., et al. Assessing the predictive value of clinical complete response to neoadjuvant therapy for rectal cancer: an analysis of 488 patients. J Am Coll Surg 194 2 (2002) 131-135 [discussion: 135-6]
274. Kuo L.J., Chern M.C., Tsou M.H., et al. Interpretation of magnetic resonance imaging for locally advanced rectal carcinoma after preoperative chemoradiation therapy. Dis Colon Rectum 48 1 (2005) 23-28
275. Lezoche E., Guerrieri M., and Paganini A.M. Long-term results in patients with T2-3 N0 distal rectal cancer undergoing radiotherapy before transanal endoscopic microsurgery. Br J Surg 92 12 (2005) 1546-1552
276. Bonnen M., Crane C., Vauthey J.N., et al. Long-term results using local excision after preoperative chemoradiation among selected T3 rectal cancer patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 60 4 (2004) 1098-1105
277. Ruo L., Guillem J.G., Minsky B.D., et al. Preoperative radiation with or without chemothreapy and full-thickness transanal excision for selected T2 and T3 distal rectal cancers. Int J Colorectal Dis 17 1 (2002) 54-58