Synesthesia: A New Approach to Understanding the Development of Perception

Developmental Psychology

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 175-189

  Spector, Ferrinne ^a   Maurer, Daphne ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

cross modal; multisensory; perceptual development; pruning; synesthesia

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN MAPPING; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COMPREHENSION; CONCEPT FORMATION; HUMAN; PERCEPTION; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; SENSATION;

BRAIN MAPPING; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COMPREHENSION; CONCEPT FORMATION; HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; PERCEPTION; SENSATION;

EID: 58449122453     PISSN: 00121649     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0014171     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Abravanel E., and Sigafoos A.D. Exploring the presence of imitation during early infancy. Child Development 55 (1984) 381-392
2. Aleman A., Rutten G.J., Sitskoorn M.M., Dautzenberg G., and Ramsey N.F. Activation of striate cortex in the absence of visual stimulation: An fMRI study of synesthesia. Neuroreport 12 (2001) 2827-2830
3. Amedi A., Merabet L.B., Bermpohl F., and Pascual-Leone A. The occipital cortex in the blind. Psychological Science 14 (2005) 306-311
4. Asher J.E., Aitken M.R.F., Farooqi N., Kurmani S., and Baron-Cohen S. Diagnosing and phenotyping visual synesthesia: A preliminary evaluation of the revised test of genuineness (TOG-R). Cortex 42 (2006) 137-146
5. Bahrick L.E. Infants' perceptual differentiation of amodal and modality-specific audio-visual relations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 53 (1992) 180-199
6. Bahrick L.E. The development of infants' sensitivity to arbitrary intermodal relations. Ecological Psychology 6 (1994) 111-123
7. Bahrick L.E. Increasing specificity in perceptual development: Infants' detection of nested levels of multimodal stimulation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 79 (2001) 253-270
8. Bahrick L.E., Hernandez-Reif M., and Flom R. The development of infant learning about specific face-voice relations. Developmental Psychology 41 (2005) 541-552
9. Bahrick L.E., and Lickliter R. Intersensory redundancy guides attentional selectivity and perceptual learning in infancy. Developmental Psychology 36 (2000) 190-201
10. Bahrick L.E., and Lickliter R. Infants' perception of rhythm and tempo in unimodal and multimodal stimulation: A developmental test of the intersensory redundancy hypothesis. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience 4 (2004) 137-147
11. Bahrick L.E., and Pickens J.N. Amodal relations: The basis for intermodal perception and learning in infancy. In: Lewkowicz D.J., and Lickliter R. (Eds). The development of intersensory perception (1994), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 205-235
12. Bahrick L.E., and Watson J.S. Detection of intermodal proprioceptive-visual contingency as a potential basis of self-perception in infancy. Developmental Psychology 21 (1985) 963-973
13. Baron-Cohen S., Harrison J., Goldstein L.H., and Wyke M. Colored speech perception: Is synesthesia what happens when modularity breaks down?. Perception 22 (1993) 419-426
14. Berlin B. Evidence for pervasive synesthetic sound symbolism in ethnozoological nomenclature. In: Hinton L., Nichols J., and Ohala J. (Eds). Sound symbolism (1994), Cambridge University Press, New York 76-93
15. Bulkin D.A., and Groh J.M. Seeing sounds: Visual and auditory interactions in the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 16 (2006) 415-419
16. Burkhalter A. Development of forward and feedback connections between areas V1 and V2 of human visual cortex. Cerebral Cortex 3 (1993) 476-487
17. Burton H., McLaren D.G., and Sinclair R.J. Reading embossed capital letters: An fMRI study in blind and sighted individuals. Human Brain Mapping 4 (2006) 325-339
18. Burton H., Sinclair R.J., and McLaren D.G. Cortical activity to vibrotactile stimulation: An fMRI study in blind and sighted individuals. Human Brain Mapping 23 (2004) 210-228
19. Burton H., Snyder A.Z., Diamond J.B., and Raichle M.E. Adaptive changes in early and late blind: A fMRI study of verb generation to heard nouns. Journal of Neurophysiology 88 (2002) 3359-3371
20. Cappe C., and Barone P. Heteromodal connections supporting multisensory integration at low levels of cortical processing in the monkey. European Journal of Neuroscience 22 (2005) 2886-2902
21. Cohen L.G., Celnik P., Pascual-Leone A., Corwell B., Faiz L., Dambrosia J., et al. Functional relevance of cross- modal plasticity in blind humans. Nature 389 (1997, September 11) 180-183
22. Cohen L.G., Weeks R., Sadato N., Celnik P., Ishii K., and Hallett M. Period of susceptibility for cross-modal plasticity in the blind. Annals of Neurology 45 (1999) 451-460
23. Dale P.S. Language development. 2nd ed. (1976), Holt Rinehart & Winston, New York
24. Davis R. The fitness of names to drawings: A crosscultural study in Tanganyika. British Journal of Psychology 52 (1961) 259-268
25. Day S. Trends in synesthetically colored graphemes and phonemes-2004 revision (2004). http://home.comcast.net/~sean.day/Trends2004.htm Available from http://home.comcast.net/~sean.day/Trends2004.htm
26. Day S. Types of synesthesia. Synesthesia (2007). http://home.comcast.net/~sean.day/html/types.htm Retrieved July 28, 2008, from http://home.comcast.net/~sean.day/html/types.htm
27. DeCasper A.J., and Fifer W.P. Of human bonding: Humans prefer their mothers' voices. Science 208 (1980, June 6) 1174-1176
28. Dehay C., Bullier J., and Kennedy H. Transient projections from the fronto-parietal and temporal cortex to areas 17, 18, and 19 in the kitten. Experimental Brain Research 57 (1984) 208-212
29. Dehay C., Kennedy H., and Bullier J. Characterization of transient cortical projections from auditory, somatosensory and motor cortices to visual areas 17, 18, and 19 in the kitten. Journal of Comparative Neurology 230 (1988) 576-592
30. de Thornley Head P. Synesthesia: Pitch-color isomorphism in RGB-space?. Cortex 42 (2006) 164-174
31. Dixon M.J., Smilek D., Cudahy C., and Merikle P.M. Five plus two equals yellow. Nature 406 (2000, July 27) 365
32. Dixon M.J., Smilek D., and Merikle P. Not all synesthetes are created equal: Projector versus associator synesthetes. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience 4 (2004) 335-343
33. Eagleman D.M., Kagan A.D., Nelson S.S., Sagaram D., and Sarma A.K. A standardized test battery for the study of synesthesia. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 159 (2007) 130-145
34. Edquist J., Rich A.N., Brinkman C., and Mattingley J.B. Do synesthetic colors act as unique features in visual search?. Cortex 42 (2006) 222-231
35. Esterman M., Verstynen T., Ivry R.B., and Robertson L.C. Coming unbound: Disrupting automatic integration of synesthetic color and graphemes by transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right parietal lobe. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18 (2006) 1570-1576
36. Falchier A., Clavagnier S., Barone P., and Kennedy H. Anatomical evidence of multimodal integration in primate striate cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 22 (2002) 5749-5759
37. Flom R., and Bahrick L.E. The development of infant discrimination of affect in multimodal and unimodal stimulation: The role of intersensory redundancy. Developmental Psychology 43 (2007) 238-252
38. Fontaine R. Imitative skills between birth and six months. Infant Behavior and Development 7 (1984) 323-333
39. Gardner J., and Gardner H. A note on selective imitation by a six-week-old infant. Child Development 41 (1970) 1209-1213
40. Gibson J.J. The senses considered as perceptual systems (1966), Houghton Mifflin, Boston
41. Gilbert A.N., Martin R., and Kemp S.E. Cross-modal correspondence between vision and olfaction: The color of smells. American Journal of Psychology 109 (1996) 335-351
42. Gottfried A.W., Rose S.A., and Bridger W.H. Cross-modal transfer in human infants. Child Development 48 (1977) 118-123
43. Gray J.A., Parslow D.M., Brammer M.J., Chopping S., Vythelingum G.N., and ffytche D.H. Evidence against functionalism from neuroimaging of the alien color effect in synesthesia. Cortex 42 (2006) 309-318
44. Grossenbacher P., and Lovelace G. Mechanisms of synesthesia: Cognitive and physiological constraints. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5 (2001) 36-41
45. Hamilton R., Keenan J., Catala M., and Pascual-Leone A. Alexia for braille following bilateral occipital stroke in an early blind woman. Neuroreport 11 (2000) 237-240
46. Heimann M., Nelson K., and Schaller J. Neonatal imitation of tongue protrusion and mouth opening: Methodological aspects and evidence of early individual differences. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 30 (1989) 90-101
47. Holland M., and Wertheimer M. Some physiognomic aspects of naming, or maluma and takete revisited. Perceptual and Motor Skills 19 (1964) 111-117
48. Hubbard E.M., Arman A.C., Ramachandran V.S., and Boynton G.M. Individual differences among grapheme-color synesthetes: Brain-behavior correlations. Neuron 45 (2005) 975-985
49. Hubbard E.M., Manohar S., and Ramachandran V.S. Contrast affects the strength of synesthetic colors. Cortex 42 (2006) 184-194
50. Huttenlocher P.R. Synapse elimination and plasticity in developing human cerebral cortex. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 88 (1984) 488-496
51. Huttenlocher P.R. Synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. In: Dawson G., and Fischer K. (Eds). Human behavior and the developing brain (1994), Guilford, New York 137-152
52. Huttenlocher P.R., and Dabholkar A.S. Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. Journal of Comparative Neuroscience 387 (1997) 167-178
53. Huttenlocher P.R., and de Courten C. The development of synapses in striate cortex of man. Human Neurobiology 6 (1987) 1-9
54. Huttenlocher P.R., de Courten C., Garey L.J., and Van der Loos H. Synaptogenesis in human visual cortex: Evidence for synapse elimination during normal development. Neuroscience Letters 13 (1982) 247-252
55. Jacobsen S.W. Matching behavior in the young infant. Child Development 50 (1979) 425-430
56. Johnson J., and Clydesdale F.M. Perceived sweetness and redness in colored sucrose solutions. Journal of Food Science 47 (1982) 87-103
57. Jones S.S. Imitation in infancy. Psychological Science 18 (2007) 593-599
58. Kemp S.E., and Gilbert A.N. Odor intensity and lightness are correlated sensory dimensions. American Journal of Psychology 110 (1997) 35-46
59. Kennedy H., Batardiere A., Dehay C., and Barone P. Synesthesia: Implications for developmental neurobiology. In: Baron-Cohen S., and Harrison J. (Eds). Synaesthesia: Classic and contemporary readings (1997), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, England 243-256
60. Kim C.-Y., Blake R., and Palmieri T.J. Perceptual interaction between real and synesthetic colors. Cortex 42 (2006) 195-203
61. Kohler, W. (1929). Gestalt psychology. Liveright, New York.
62. Koriat A., and Levy I. Figural symbolism in Chinese ideographs. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 8 (1979) 353-365
63. Laeng B., Svartdal F., and Oelmann H. Does color synesthesia pose a paradox for early-selection theories of attention?. Psychological Science 15 (2004) 277-281
64. Lewkowicz D.J., and Turkewitz G. Cross-modal equivalence in early infancy: Auditory-visual intensity matching. Developmental Psychology 16 (1980) 597-607
65. Lindauer M. The effects of the physiognomic stimuli takete and maluma on the meanings of neutral stimuli. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 28 (1990) 151-154
66. Marks L.E. On associations of light and sound: The mediation of brightness, pitch, and loudness. American Journal of Psychology 87 (1974) 173-188
67. Marks L.E. On colored-hearing synesthesia: Cross-modal translations of sensory dimensions. Psychological Bulletin 82 (1975) 303-331
68. Marks L.E. Bright sneezes and dark coughs, loud sunlight and soft moonlight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 8 (1982) 177-193
69. Marks L.E. On cross-modal similarity: Auditory-visual interactions in speeded discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 13 (1987) 384-394
70. Marks L.E. On perceptual metaphors. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 11 (1996) 39-66
71. Mattingley J.B., Payne J.M., and Rich A.N. Attentional load attenuates synesthetic priming effects in grapheme-color synesthesia. Cortex 42 (2006) 213-221
72. Mattingley J.B., Rich A.N., Yelland G., and Bradshaw J.L. Unconscious priming eliminates automatic binding of color and alphanumeric form in synesthesia. Nature 410 (2001, March 29) 580-582
73. Maurer D. Neonatal synaesthesia: Implications for the processing of speech and faces. In: Boysson-Bardies B., de Schonen S., Jusczyk P., McNeilage P., and Morton J. (Eds). Developmental neurocognition: Speech and face processing in the first year of life (1993), Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands 109-124
74. Maurer D., Lewis T.L., and Mondloch C.J. Missing sights: Consequences for visual cognitive development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 (2005) 144-151
75. Maurer D., and Maurer C. The world of the newborn (1988), Basic Books, New York
76. Maurer D., Pathman T., and Mondloch C. The shape of boubas: Sound-shape correspondences in toddlers and adults. Developmental Science 9 (2006) 316-322
77. Meltzoff A.N., and Moore M.K. Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science 198 (1977, October 7) 75-78
78. Merabet L.B., Swisher J.D., McMains S.A., Halko M.A., Amedi A., Pascual-Leone A., and Somers D.C. Combined activation and deactivation of visual cortex during tactile sensory processing. Journal of Neurophysiology 97 (2007) 1633-1641
79. Mishra J., Martinez A., Sejnowski T.J., and Hillyard S.A. Early cross-modal interactions in auditory and visual cortex underlie a sound-induced visual illusion. Journal of Neuroscience 27 (2007) 4120-4131
80. Mondloch C., and Maurer D. Do small white balls squeak? Pitch-object correspondences in young children. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience 4 (2004) 133-136
81. Muggleton N., Tsakanikos E., Walsh V., and Ward J. Disruption of synesthesia following TMS of the right posterior parietal cortex. Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 1582-1585
82. Mulvenna C.M., and Walsh V. Synesthesia: Supernormal integration?. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10 (2006) 350-352
83. Neville H. Developmental specificity in neurocognitive development in humans. In: Gazzaniga M. (Ed). The cognitive neurosciences (1995), Bradford, Cambridge, MA 219-231
84. Nikolié D., Lichti P., and Singer W. Color opponency in synesthetic experiences. Psychological Science 18 (2007) 481-486
85. Nuckolls J. The case for sound symbolism. Annual Reviews of Anthropology 28 (1999) 225-252
86. Nunn J.A., Gregory L.J., Brammer M., Williams S.C.R., Parslow D.M., Morgan M.J., et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of synesthesia: Activation of V4/V8 by spoken words. Nature Neuroscience 5 (2002) 371-375
87. Ockleford E.M., Vince M.A., Layton C., and Reader M.R. Responses of neonates to parents' and others' voices. Early Human Development 18 (1988) 27-36
88. Odgaard E.C., Arieh Y., and Marks L.E. Brighter noise: Sensory enhancement of perceived loudness by concurrent visual stimulation. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience 4 (2004) 127-132
89. Palmieri T.J., Blake R., Marois R., Flanery M.A., and Whetsell W. The perceptual reality of synesthetic colors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 99 (2002) 4127-4131
90. Pascual-Leone A., and Hamilton R. The metamodal organization of the brain. Progress in Brain Research 134 (2001) 427-445
91. Paulesu E., Harrison J., Baron-Cohen S., Watson J.D.G., Goldstein L., Heather J., et al. The physiology of colored-hearing: A PET activation study of color-word synesthesia. Brain 118 (1995) 661-676
92. Paulsen H.G., and Laeng B. Pupillometry of grapheme-color synesthesia. Cortex 42 (2006) 290-294
93. Piaget J. Origins of intelligence in children (1952), International Universities Press, New York
94. Pickens J., Field T., Nawrocki T., Martinez A., Soutullo D., and Gonzalez J. Full-term and pre-term infants' perception of face-voice synchrony. Infant Behavior and Development 17 (1994) 447-455
95. Ramachandran V.S., and Azoulai S. Synesthetically induced colors evoke apparent motion perception. Perception 35 (2006) 1557-1560
96. Ramachandran V.S., and Hubbard E.M. Synethesia: A window into perception, thought, and language. Journal of Consciousness Studies 12 (2001) 3-34
97. Rich A.N., Bradshaw J.L., and Mattingley J.B. A systematic, large-scale systematic study of synesthesia: Implications for the role of early experience in lexical-color associations. Cognition 98 (2005) 53-84
98. Rich A., and Mattingley J. The effects of stimulus competition and voluntary attention on color-graphemic synesthesia. NeuroReport 14 (2003) 1793-1798
99. Rich A.N., Williams M.A., Puce A., Syngeniotis A., Howard M.A., McGlone F., and Mattingley J.B. Neural correlates of imagined and synesthetic colors. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2918-2925
100. Rochat P., and Morgan R. Spatial determinants in the perception of self-produced leg movements by 3- to 5-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology 31 (1995) 626-636
101. Rockland K.S., and Ojima H. Multisensory interactions in calcarine visual areas in macaque monkey. Journal of Psychophysiology 50 (2003) 19-26
102. Röder B., Rösler F., Hennighausen E., and Nacker F. Event-related potentials during auditory and somatosensory discrimination. Cognitive Brain Research 4 (1996) 77-93
103. Röder B., Stock O., Bien S., Neville H., and Rösler F. Speech processing activates visual cortex in congenitally blind humans. European Journal of Neuroscience 16 (2002) 930-936
104. Rose S.A., and Ruff H.A. Cross-modal abilities in human infants. In: Osofky J. (Ed). Handbook of infant development. 2nd ed. (1987), Wiley, New York 316-362
105. Rouw R., and Scholte H.S. Increased structural connectivity in grapheme-color synesthesia. Nature Neuroscience 10 (2007) 792-797
106. Sadato N., Okado T., Honda M., and Yonekura Y. Critical period for cross-modal plasticity in blind humans: A functional MRI study. NeuroImage 16 (2002) 389-400
107. Sadato N., Pascual-Leone A., Grafman J., Deiber M.-P., Ibañez V., and Hallett M. Neural networks for Braille reading by the blind. Brain 121 (1998) 1213-1229
108. Sadato N., Pascual-Leone A., Grafman J., Ibanez V., Deiber M.P., Dold G., and Hallet M. Activation of the primary visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects. Nature 380 (1996, April 11) 526-528
109. Sagiv N., Heer J., and Robertson L. Does binding of synesthetic color to the evoking grapheme require attention?. Cortex 42 (2006) 232-242
110. Sagiv N., and Ward J. Crossmodal interactions: Lessons from synesthesia. Progressive Brain Research 155 (2006) 259-271
111. Schmuckler M.A. Visual-proprioceptive intermodal perception in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development 19 (1996) 221-232
112. Schutz M., and Lipscomb S. Hearing gestures, seeing music: Vision influences perceived note duration. Perception 36 (2007) 888-897
113. Shams L., Kamitani Y., and Shimojo S. Illusions: What you see is what you hear. Nature 408 (2000, December 14) 788
114. Shintel H., Nusbaum H.C., and Okrent A. Analog acoustic expression in speech communication. Journal of Memory and Language 55 (2006) 167-177
115. Simner J., Sagiv N., Mulvenna C., Tsakanikos E., Witherby S., Fraser C., et al. Synesthesia: The prevalence of atypical cross-modal experiences. Perception 35 (2006) 1024-1033
116. Simner J., Ward J., Lanz M., Jansari A., Noonan K., Glover L., and Oakley D. Non-random associations of graphemes to colors in the synaesthetic and non-synaesthetic populations. Cognitive Neuropsychology 22 (2005) 1-17
117. Smilek D., Callejas A., Dixon M.J., and Merikle P.M. Ovals of time: Time-space associations in synesthesia. Consciousness and Cognition 26 (2007) 507-519
118. Smilek D., Dixon M.J., and Merikle P.M. Synesthetic photisms guide attention. Brain and Cognition 53 (2003) 364-367
119. Smilek D., Dixon M.J., Cudahy C., and Merikle P.M. Synesthetic photisms influence visual perception. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 13 (2001) 930-936
120. Smith L.B., and Sera M.D. A developmental analysis of the polar structure of dimensions. Cognitive Psychology 24 (1992) 99-142
121. Spector, F., & Maurer, D. (2007a). [Color associations to the letters B and Y in literate children and adults]. Unpublished raw data.
122. Spector, F., & Maurer, D. (2007b, January). The color of O's: Naturally-biased shape-color associations. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Synesthesia Association, St. Petersburg, FL.
123. Spector, F., & Maurer, D. (2007c, April). The color of O's: Naturally-biased shape-color associations. Poster presentation at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, MA.
124. Spector, F. & Maurer, D (2007d). [Influences on color mapping to the letters Z and I in toddlers]. Unpublished raw data.
125. Spector F., and Maurer D. The color of Os: Naturally biased associations between shape and color. Perception 37 (2008) 841-847
126. Spector, F., & Maurer, D. (2008b). [Influence of consonant sound on shape mapping in toddlers]. Unpublished raw data.
127. Sperling J.M., Prvulovic D., Linden D.E.J., Singer W., and Stirn A. Neuronal correlates of color-grapheme synesthesia: A fMRI study. Cortex 42 (2006) 295-303
128. Stein B.E., London N., Wilkinson L.K., and Price D.D. Enhancement of perceived visual intensity by auditory stimuli: A psychophysical analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8 (1996) 497-506
129. Stevens M.S., Hansen P.C., and Blakemore C. Activation of color-selective areas of the visual cortex in a blind synesthete. Cortex 42 (2006) 304-308
130. Streri A. Tactile discrimination of shape and intermodal transfer in 2- to 3-month-old infants. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 5 (1987) 213-220
131. Streri A., and Pecheux M.-G. Tactual habituation and discrimination of form in infancy: A comparison with vision. Child Development 57 (1986) 100-104
132. Tanz C. Sound symbolism in words relating to proximity and distance. Language and Speech 14 (1971) 266-276
133. Tzourio-Mazoyer N., de Schonen S., Crivello F., Reutter B., Aujard Y., and Mazoyer B. Neural correlates of woman face processing by 2-month-old infants. NeuroImage 15 (2002) 454-461
134. Violentyev A., Shimojo S., and Shams L. Touch-induced visual illusion. NeuroReport 16 (2005) 1107-1110
135. Ward J., Huckstep B., and Tsakanikos E. Sound-color synesthesia: To what extent does it use cross-modal mechanisms common to us all?. Cortex 42 (2006) 264-280
136. Ward J., and Sagiv N. Finger counting and dice patterns: A case of higher synesthesia?. Neurocase 13 (2007) 86-93
137. Ward J., and Simner J. Lexical-gustatory synesthesia: Linguistic and conceptual factors. Cognition 89 (2003) 237-261
138. Ward J., and Simner J. Is synesthesia an X-linked dominant trait with lethality in males?. Perception 34 (2005) 611-623
139. Weiss P.H., Zilles K., and Fink G.R. When visual perception causes feeling: Enhanced cross-modal processing in grapheme-color synesthesia. NeuroImage 28 (2005) 859-868
140. Werker J.F., Cohen L.B., Lloyd V.L., Casasola M., and Stager C.L. Acquisition of word-object associations by 14-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology 34 (1998) 1289-1309
141. Werker J.F., Fennell C.T., Corcoran K.M., and Stager C.L. Infants' ability to learn phonetically similar words: Effects of age and vocabulary size. Infancy 3 (2002) 1-30
142. Westbury C. Implicit sound symbolism in lexical access: Evidence from an interference task. Brain and Language 93 (2005) 10-19
143. Westermann G., Mareschal D., Johnson M.H., Sirois S., Spratling W.W., and Thomas M.S.C. Neuroconstructivism. Developmental Science 10 (2007) 75-83
144. Winawer, J., & Witthoft, N. (2004, April). Anticolors: Early visual mechanisms in color-grapheme synesthesia. Poster presented at the meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco.
145. Witthoft N., and Winawer J. Synesthetic colors determined by having colored refrigerator magnets in childhood. Cortex 24 (2006) 175-183
146. Wolff P., Matsumiya Y., Abrohms I.F., van Velzer C., and Lombroso C.T. The effect of white noise on the somatosensory evoked responses in sleeping newborn infants. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 37 (1974) 269-274
147. Yaka R., Yinon U., and Wollberg Z. Auditory activation of cortical visual areas in cats after early visual deprivation. European Journal of Neuroscience 11 (1999) 1301-1312
148. Zellner D.A., Bartoli A.M., and Eckard R. Influence of color on odor identification and liking ratings. American Journal of Psychology 104 (1991) 547-561
149. Zellner D.A., and Kautz M.A. Color affects perceived odor intensity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 16 (1990) 391-397