Secular changes in human biological variables in Western Countries: An updated review and synthesis

Journal of Anthropological Sciences

Volumn 86, Issue , 2008, Pages 91-112

  Danubio, Maria Enrica ^a   Sanna, Emanuele ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF L'AQUILA   (Italy)

^b Sezione di Scienze Antropologiche   (Italy)

Author keywords

Anthropometry; Menopause; Puberty; Secular trend; Sport

Indexed keywords

EID: 58449095211     PISSN: 18274765     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Alì A., Uetake T. & Ohtsuki F. 2000. Secular changes in relative leg length in post-war Japan. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 12: 405-416.
2. Antonini Canterin A., Donadon V. & Menin A. 1977. Body weight, body height and menarche. Epidemiological study, in the Province of Pordenone, of the school population from 12 to 15 years old (12,000). Arch. Sc. Med.,134: 211-218.
3. Arcaleni E. 2006. Secular trend and regional differences in the stature of Italians, 1854-1980. Econ. Hum. Biol., 4: 24-38.
4. Artaria M.D. & Henneberg M. 2000. Why did they lie? Socio-economic bias in reporting menarcheal age. Ann. Hum. Biol., 27: 561-569.
5. Ayatollahi S.M., Dowlatabadi E. & Ayatollahi S.A. 2002. Age at menarche in Iran. Ann. Hum. Biol., 29: 355-362.
6. Barnes-Josiah D. & Augustin A. 1995. Secular trend in the age at menarche in Haiti. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 7: 357-362.
7. Baskin M.L., Ard J., Franklin F. & Allison D.B. 2005. Prevalence of obesity in the United States. Obesity, 6: 5-7.
8. Benso L., Lorenzino C., Pastorin L., Barotto M., Signorile F. & Mostert M. 1989. The distribution of age at menarche in a random series of Turin girls followed longitudinally. Ann. Hum. Biol., 16: 549-552.
9. Bielicki T., Waliszko A., Hulanicka B. & Kotlarz K. 1986. Social-class gradients in menarcheal age in Poland. Ann. Hum. Biol., 13: 1-11.
10. Bielicki T., Koniarek J. & Malina R.M. 1984. Interrelationships among certain measures of growth and maturation rate in boys during adolescence. Ann. Hum. Biol., 11: 201-210.
11. Blanck H.M., Marcus M., Tolbert P.E., Rubin C., Henderson A.K., Hertzberg V.S., Zhang R.H. & Cameron L. 2000. Age at menarche and Tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyl. Epidemiology, 11: 641-647.
12. Bodzsar E.B. & Papai J. 1994. Secular trend in body proportions and composition. Human biol. Budapest., 25: 245-254.
13. Bodzsar E.B. 1998. Secular growth changes in Hungary. In Bodzsar E.B. & Susanne C. (eds.): Secular growth changes in Europe, pp. 175-205. Eötvös University Press, Budapest.
14. Bodzsar E.B. 2000. Studies on sexual maturation of Hungarian children. Acta ol. Szegediensis, 44: 155-165.
15. Bona G., Castellino N. & Petri A. 2002. Secular trend della pubertà. Min. Pediatr., 54: 553-557.
16. Borms J. 2003. Secular changes in sport. Kinesiology, 35, 1: 91-96.
17. Borms J. & Hebbenlinck 1984. Review of studies on Olympic athletes. In Carter J.E.L. (ed.): Physical Structure of Olympic athletes, Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes, Medicine and Sport Science Series, XVIII, pp.7-27. Karger, Basel.
18. Bundred P., Kitchiner D. & Buchan I. 2001. Prevalence of overweight and obese children between 1989 and 1998: population based series of cross-sectional studies. Brit. Med. J., 322: 326-328.
19. Calò C.M., Cireddu M.I. & Vona G. 1996. L'età del menarca e la sua variabilità. Ital. J. Sport Sci., 3: 32-38.
20. Cameron N. & Nagdee I. 1996. Menarcheal age in two generations of South African Indians. Ann. Hum. Biol., 23: 113-119.
21. Carfagna M., Figurelli E., Matarese G. & Matarese S. 1972. Menarcheal age of schoolgirls in the District of Naples, Italy, in 1969-70. Hum. Biol., 44: 117-125.
22. Cavelaars A.E.J.M., Kunst A.E., Geurts J.J.M., Crialesi R., Grötvedt L., Helmert U., Lahelma E., Lundberg O., Mielck A., Rasmussen N.K., Regidor E., Sphuler T. & Mackenbach J.P. 2000. Persisting variations in average height between countries and between socioeconomic groups: an overview of 10 European countries. Ann. Hum. Biol., 27: 407-421.
23. Celentano E., Galasso R., Berrino F., Fusconi E., Giurdanella M.C., Tumino R., Sacerdote C., Fiorini L., Ciardullo A.V., Mattiello A., Palli D., Masala G. & Panico S. 2003. Correlates of age at natural menopause in the cohorts of EPIC-Italy. Tumori, 89: 608-614.
24. Chamla M.L. 1964. L'accroissement de la stature en France de 1880 a 1960, comparaison avec le pays d'Europe occidentale. Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, t. 6, série XI, 2: 201-278.
25. Chamla M.C. 1983. L'evolution recente de la stature en Europe occidentale (Période 1960-1980). Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, t. 10, série XIII, 2: 195-224.
26. Charzewski J. & Bielicki T. 1978. Is the secular trend in stature associated with relative elongation of the limbs? Homo, 29: 176-181.
27. Chumlea W.C., Schubert C.M., Roche A.F., Kalin H.E., Lee P.A., Himes J.H. & Guo S.S. 2003. Age at menarche and racial comparison in U.S. girls. Pediatrics, 111: 110-113.
28. Cole T.J. 2000. Secular trends in growth. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 59: 317-324.
29. Cole T.J. 2003. The secular trend in human physical growth: a biological view. Econ. Hum. Biol., 1: 161-168.
30. Danubio M.E., De Simone M., Amicone E., Altobelli E., Vecchi F. & Gruppioni G. 2004. Age at menarche and age of onset of pubertal characteristics in 6-14 year-old girls from the Province of L'Aquila (Abruzzo, Italy). Am. J. Hum. Biol., 16: 470-478.
31. de Beer H. 2004. Observations on the history of Dutch physical stature from the late-Middle Ages to the present. Econ. Hum. Biol., 2: 45-55.
32. Demoulin F. 1998. Secular trend in France. In Bodzsár E.B. & Susanne C. (eds): Secular growth changes in Europe, pp. 109-134. Eötvös University Press, Budapest.
33. De Simone M., Danubio M.E., Amicone E., Gruppioni G. & Vecchi F. 2004. Age of onset of pubertal characteristics in 6-14 year-old boys from the Province of L'Aquila (Abruzzo, Italy). Ann. Hum. Biol., 31: 488-493.
34. Dober I. & Kiralyfalvi L. 1993. Pubertal development in South-Hungarian boys and girls. Ann. Hum. Biol., 20: 71-74.
35. Elrick H., Samaras T.T. & Demas A. 2002. Missing links in the obesity epidemic. Nutr. Res., 22: 1101-1123.
36. Eveleth P.B. & Tanner J.M. 1990. Worldwide variation in human growth, 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
37. Floris G. 2003. Il fenomeno del menarca in Sardegna: situazione attuale. Atti XV Congresso degli Antropologi Italiani, pp. 247-250. Sant'Atto, Teramo, Edigrafital.
38. Floris G., Murgia E., Sanciu G.M. & Sanna E. 1987. Age at menarche in Sardinia (Italy). Ann. Hum. Biol., 14: 285-286.
39. Floris G., Murgia E. & Sanciu G.M. 1991. Il menarca in Sardegna, nuovi dati. Antrop. Contemp., 14: 61-69.
40. Floris G., Murgia E. & Usai N. 1992. Alcuni dati sul fenomeno della menopausa e del menarca in 101 donne sarde. Rendiconti Semin. Fac. Scienze Univ. Cagliari, 62: 165-177.
41. Floud R. 1994. The heights of Europeans since 1750: a new source for European Economic History. In Komlos J. (ed): Stature, living standards, and economic development. pp. 9-24. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
42. Floud R., Wachter K. & Gregory A. 1990. Height, health and history. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
43. Foster T.A., Voors A.W., Webber L.S., Frerichs R.R. & Berenson G.S. 1977. Anthropometric and maturation measurements of children, ages 5 to 14 years, in a biracial community -the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 30: 582-591.
44. Fubini E., Masali M., Eynard E. & Salis N. 2001. Changes in secular trend of stature in Italian regional populations. Rivista di Antropologia, 79: 165-172.
45. Gerver W.J., De Bruin R. & Drayer N.M. 1994. A persisting secular trend for body measurements in Dutch children. The Oosterwolde II Study. Acta Paed., 83: 812-814.
46. Gini C. & De Orchi P. 1939. Il ciclo sessuale delle madri delle famiglie numerose. Tipografia Operaia Romana, Roma
47. Gonzales G.F. & Villena A. 1996. Body Mass Index and age at menarche in Peruvian children living at high altitude and at sea level. Hum. Biol., 68: 265-275.
48. Graham M.J., Larsen U. & Xu X. 1999. Secular trend in age at menarche in China: a case study of two rural counties in Anhui Province. J. Bios. Sc., 31: 257-67.
49. Grassivaro Gallo P. 1991. L'età al menarca nelle Marche, nel panorama dei dati italiani. Antrop. Contemp., 14: 91-96.
50. Grassivaro Gallo P. & Boscolo Moro E. 1980. La menarchia in Italia, aspetti biologici e psicologici. Antrop. Contemp., 3: 509-520.
51. Grassivaro Gallo P. & Parnigotto P.P. 1982. On the biological factors and school progress linked with menarcheal age in Puglie (South Italy). Acta Med. Auxol., 14: 127-135.
52. Grassivaro Gallo P. 1984. Il menarca nelle Marche (Nota preliminare). Antrop. Contemp., 7: 45-48.
53. Greulich W.W. 1957. A comparison of the physical growth and development of American-born and native Japanese children. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 15: 489-515.
54. Gueresi P. 1996. Età al menarca e fattori socioeconomici nelle province di Parma, Reggio Emilia e Mantova. Antrop. Contemp., 19: 107-116.
55. Hauspie R.C., Vercauteren M. & Susanne C. 1997. Secular changes in growth and maturation: an update. Acta Pediat., Suppl. 423: 20-27.
56. Hedley A.A., Ogden C.I., Johnson C.I., Carroll M.D., Curtin I.R. & Flegal K.M. 2004. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents, and adults, 1999-2002. JAMA, 291: 2847-2850.
57. Henneberg M. & Louw G.J. 1995. Average menarcheal age of higher socioeconomic status urban Cape coloured girls assessed by means of status quo and recall methods. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 96: 1-5.
58. Herman-Giddens M.E. 2006. Recent data on pubertal milestones in United States children: the secular trend toward earlier development. Intern. J. Androl., 29: 241-246.
59. Herman-Giddens M.E., Slora E.J., Wasserman R.C., Bourdony C.J., Bhapkar M.V., Koch G.G. & Hasemeier C.M. 1997. Secondary sexual characteristics and menses in young girls seen in office practice: a study from the Pediatric Research in Office Settings network. Pediatrics,99: 505-512.
60. Herman-Giddens M.E., Wang L. & Koch G. 2001. Secondary sexual characteristics in boys: estimates from the national health and nutrition examination survey III, 1988-1994. Arch. Pediat. Adol. Med., 155: 1022-1028.
61. Hermanussen M., Burmeister J. & Burkhardt V. 1995. Stature and stature distribution in recent West German and historic samples of Italian and Dutch conscripts. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 7: 507-515.
62. Himes J.H. 1979. Secular changes in body proportions and composition. Mon. Soc. Res. Child Develop., 44:28-58.
63. Huen K.F., Leung S.S., Lau J.T., Cheung A.Y., Leung N.K. & Chiu M.C. 1997. Secular trend in the sexual maturation of Southern Chinese girls. Acta Paediatr., 86: 1121-1124.
64. Hulanicka B. & Waliszko A. 1991. Deceleration of age at menarche in Poland. Ann. Hum. Biol., 18: 507-513.
65. Istat. 1958. Sommario di statistiche storiche italiane 1861-1955. ICS, Roma.
66. Istat. 2003. Annuario Statistico Italiano. ICS, Roma.
67. Juul A., Telmann G., Scheike T., Hertel N.T., Holm K., Laursen E.M., Main K.M. & Skakkebæk N.E. 2006. Pubertal development in Danish children: comparison of recent European and US data. Int. J. Androl., 29: 247-255.
68. Kaplowitz P. 2006. Pubertal development in girls: secular trends. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol., 18: 487-491.
69. Karpati A.M., Rubin C.H., Kieszak S.M., Marcus M. & Troiano R.P. 2002. Stature and pubertal stage assessment in American boys: the 1988-1994 Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J. Adol. Health, 30: 205-212.
70. Komlos J. & Baur L. 2004. From the tallest to (one of ) the fattest: the enigmatic fate of the American population in the 20th century. Econ. Hum. Biol., 2: 57-74.
71. Kromeyer-Hauschild K. & Jaeger U. 2000. Growth studies in Jena, Germany: changes in sitting height, biacromial and bicristal breadth in the past decenniums. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 12: 646-654.
72. Larnkjær A., Schrøder S.A., Schmidt I.M., Jørgensen M.H. & Michaelsen K.F. 2006. Secular change in adult stature has come to a halt in northern Europe and Italy. Acta Paed., 95: 754-755.
73. Lee M.M., Sergeyev O., Williams P., Korrick S., Zeilert V., Revich B. & Hauser R. 2003. Physical growth and sexual maturation of boys in Chapaevsk, Russia. J. Pediat. Endocr. Metab., 16: 169-178.
74. Lee P.A. 1980. Normal ages of pubertal events among American males and females. J. Adolesc. Health Care, 1: 26-29.
75. Leung S.S.F., Lau J.T.F., Xu Y.Y., Tse L.Y., Huen K.F., Wong G.W.K., Law W.Y., Yeung W.K.Y. & Leung N.K. 1996. Secular changes in standing height, sitting height and sexual maturation of Chinese - the Hong Kong growth study, 1993. Ann. Hum. Biol., 23: 297-306.
76. Lindgren G. 1996. Pubertal stages 1980 of Stockholm schoolchildren. Acta Paed., 85: 1365-1367.
77. Lindgren G. 1998. Secular growth changes in Sweden. In Bodzsár E.B. & Susanne C. (eds): Secular growth changes in Europe. pp. 319-333. Eötvös University Press, Budapest.
78. Lozovina V. & Pavicic L. 2004. Anthropometric changes in elite male water polo players: survey in 1980 and 1995. Croat. Med. J., 45: 202-205.
79. Macias-Tomei C., Lopez-Blanco M., Espinoza I. & Vasquez-Ramirez M. 2000. Pubertal development in Caracas upper-middle-class boys and girls in a longitudinal context. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 12: 88-96.
80. Malina R.M. 1990. Research on secular trends in auxology. Anthrop. Anz., 48: 209-227.
81. Malina R.M., Katzmarzyk P.T., Bonci C.M., Ryan R.C. & Wellens R.E. 1997. Family size and age at menarche in athletes. Med. Sc. Sports Exerc., 29: 99-106.
82. Marrodan M.D., Mesa M.S., Arechiga J. & Perez-Magdaleno A. 2000. Trend in menarcheal age in Spain: rural and urban comparison during a recent period. Ann. Hum. Biol., 27: 313-319.
83. Martuzzi Veronesi F. & Gualdi Russo E. 1982-83. L'età alla menopausa in un campione di donne bolognesi, uno studio sul trend secolare. Rivista di Antropologia, 62: 31-40.
84. Martuzzi Veronesi F. & Gueresi P. 1994. Trend in menarcheal age and socioeconomic influence in Bologna (Northern Italy). Ann. Hum. Biol., 21: 187-196.
85. Mascie-Taylor C.G. & Goto R. 2007. Human variation and Body Mass Index: a review of the universality of BMI cut-offs, gender and urban-rural differences, and secular changes. J. Physiol. Anthrop., 26: 109-112.
86. Matton L., Duvigneaud N., Wijndaele K., Philippaerts R., Duquet W., Beunen G., Claessens A.L., Thomis M. & Lefevre J. 2007. Secular trends in anthropometric characteristics, physical fitness, physical activity, and biological maturation in Flemish adolescents between 1969 and 2005. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 19: 345-357.
87. Maxia C., Cosseddu G.G., Floris G. & Vona G. 1975. Il fenomeno della menopausa in 1593 donne sarde. Nota I. Arch. Antr. Etnol., 105: 157-164.
88. McDowell M., Brody D.J. & Hughes J.P. 2007. Has age at menarche changed? Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2004. J. Adol. Health, 40: 227-231.
89. Mészáros J., Mahmoud O. & Szabó T. 1999. Secular trend and motor performance scores in Hungarian school-boys. Facta Universit. Physiv Educ., 1: 43-49.
90. Molarius A., Seidell J.C., Sans S, Tuomilehto J. & Kuulasmaa K. 2000. Education level, relative body weight, and changes in their association over 10 years: an international perspective from the WHO MONICA project. Am. J. Pub. Health, 90: 1260-1268.
91. Moore W.M. 1970. The secular trend in physical growth of urban North American Negro school children. Mon. Soc. Res. Child Develop., 35,62-73.
92. NHS 2007. Health Survey for England. http://www.ic.nhs.uk/
93. Nichols H.B., Trentham-Dietz A., Hampton J.M., Titus-Ernstoff L., Egan K.M., Willett W.C. & Newcomb P.A. 2006. From menarche to menopause: trends among US women born from 1912 to 1969. Am. J. Epidem., 164: 1003-1011.
94. Nicoletti I. 1994. Auxologia normale e patologica. pp. 89-304. Centro Studi Auxologici, Florence. Norton K. & Olds T. 2001. Morphological evolution of athletes over the 20th century. Sports Med., 31: 763-783.
95. Norton K., Olds T., Olive S. & Craig N. 1996. Anthropometry and sports performance. In Norton K. & Olds T. (eds.): Anthropometrica. pp. 289-364. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, NSW.
96. Olds T. 2001. The evolution of physique in male rugby union players in the twentieth century. J. Sports Sc., 19: 253-262.
97. Padez C. 2003. Secular trend in stature in the Portuguese population (1904-2000). Ann. Hum. Biol., 30: 262-278.
98. Padez C. 2007. Secular trend in Portugal. J. Hum. Ecol., 22: 15-22.
99. Pasquet P., Manguelle-Dicoum Biyong A., Rikong-Adie H., Befidi-Mengue R., Garba M.T. & Froment A. 1999. Age at menarche and urbanization in Cameroon: current status and secular trends. Ann. Hum. Biol., 26: 89-97.
100. Pavelka M.S.M. & Fedigan L.M. 1991. Menopause, a comparative life history perspective. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol., 34: 13-38.
101. Prebeg Z., Slugan N., Reic L., Stipic N., Ferri-Matic M., Treber-Culumovic S. & Dronkovich M. 1994. Secular growth changes in school children in Croatia. Coll. Antropol., 18: 309-316.
102. Rebato E. 1998. The studies on secular trend in Spain: a review. In Bodzsár E.B. & Susanne C. (eds): Secular growth changes in Europe. pp. 297-317. Eötvös University Press, Budapest.
103. Roberts D.F. 1994. Secular trends in growth and maturation in British girls. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 6: 13-18.
104. Rödström K., Bengtsson C., Milson I., Lissner L., Sundh V. & Bjoürkelund C. 2003. Evidence for a secular trend in menopausal age: a population study of women in Gothenburg. Menopause, 10: 538-543.
105. Salces I., Rebato E.M., Susanne C., San Martin L. & Rosique J. 2001. Familial resemblance for the age at menarche in Basque population. Ann. Hum. Biol., 28: 143-156.
106. Sanchez-Andres A. 1997. Genetic and environmental factors affecting menarcheal age in Spanish women. Anthrop. Anz., 55: 69-78.
107. Sanna E. & Palmas L. 2003. Changes in body and head dimensions in urban Sardinian children (3-5 years) from 1986 to 2001. Ann. Hum. Biol., 30: 295-303.
108. Sanna E. & Soro M.R. 2000. Anthropometric changes in urban Sardinian children 7 to 10 years between 1975-1976 and 1996. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 12: 782-791.
109. Sanna E., Soro M.R. & Calò C. 2006. Overweight and obesity prevalence in urban Sardinian children. Anthrop. Anz., 64: 333-344.
110. Schmidt I.M., Jørgensen M.H. & Michaelsen K.F. 1995. Height of conscripts in Europe: is postneonatal mortality a predictor? Ann. Hum. Biol., 22: 57-67.
111. Statistics Denmark 2007. Statistical Yearbook of Denmark.
112. Statistics Netherlands 2007. State of health of the Dutch population.
113. Statistics Norway 2006. Statistical Yearbook of Norway.
114. Steckel R.H. 1995. Stature and Standard of Living. J. Econ. Liter., 33: 1903-1940.
115. Sun S.S., Schubert C.M., Chumlea W.C., Roche A.F., Kulin H.E., Lee P.A., Himes J.M. & Ryan A.S. 2002. National estimates of the timing of sexual maturation and racial differences among US children. Pediatrics, 110: 911-919.
116. Susanne C. 1993. Croissance et nutrition.Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, t.5, n.s., n. 1-2 : 69-83.
117. Tanner J.M. 1962. Growth at adolescence. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
118. Tanner J.M. 1986. Growth as a mirror of condition of society: secular trends and class distinctions. In Demirjan A. (ed.): Human growth - a multidisciplinary review, pp. 3-34. Taylor & Francis, London.
119. Tanner J.M., Hayashi T., Preece M.A. & Cameron N. 1982. Increase in length of leg relative to trunk in Japanese children and adults from 1957 to 1977, comparison with British and with Japanese Americans. Ann. Hum. Biol., 9: 411-423.
120. Tanner, J.M. 1990. Growth as a mirror of conditions in society. In Lindgren G. (ed.): Growth as a mirror of conditions in society, pp. 9-70. Stockholm Institute Education Press, Stockholm.
121. Thomas F., Renaud F., Benefice E., De Meeus T. & Guegan J.F. 2001. International variability of ages at menarche and menopause: patterns and main determinants. Hum. Biol., 73: 271-290.
122. Torrance G.M., Hooper M.D. & Reeder B.A. 2002. Trends in overweight and obesity among adults in Canada (1970-1992): evidence from national surveys using measured height and weight. Intern. J. Obes., 26: 797-804.
123. Troiano R.P., Flegal K.M., Kuczmarski R.J., Campbell S.M. & Johnson C.L. 1995. Overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963 to 1991. Arch. Pediat. Adol. Med., 149: 1085-1091.
124. Tryggvadottir L., Tulinius H. & Larusdottir M. 1994. A decline and a halt in mean age at menarche in Iceland. Ann. Hum. Biol., 21: 179-186.
125. Ulijaszek S.J. 1998. The secular trend. 1998. In Ulijaszek S.J., Johnston F.E. & Preece M.A. (eds.): The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Growth and Development, pp. 395-398 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
126. Ulijaszek S.J. 2001. Secular trends in growth: the narrowing of ethnic differences in stature. Nutr. Bull., 26: 43-51.
127. Ulijaszek S.J., Evans E. & Miller D.S. 1991. Age at menarche of European, Afro-Caribbean and Indo-Pakistani schoolgirls living in London. Ann. Hum. Biol., 18: 167-175.
128. Ulizzi L. & Terrenato L. 1982. A comparison between secular trends of stature and some socio-economic factors in Italy. J. Hum. Evol., 11: 715-720.
129. Vadocz E.A., Siegel S.R. & Malina R.M. 2002. Age at menarche in competitive figure skaters: variation by competency and discipline. J. Sports Sc., 20: 93-100.
130. van Wieringen J.C. 1979. Secular growth changes and environment - An analysis of development in the Netherlands, 1850-1978. Coll. Antropol., 3: 35-48.
131. van Wieringen J.C. 1986. Secular growth changes. In Falkner F. & Tanner J.M. (eds.): Human growth - A comprehensive treatise. 2nd Edition, Vol. 3, Methodology, ecological, genetic and nutritional effects on growth, pp. 307-331. Plenum Press, New York.
132. Vercauteren M., Hauspie R.C. & Susanne C. 1998. Biometry of Belgian boys and girls: changes since Quételet. In Bodzsár E.B. & Susanne C. (eds): Secular growth changes in Europe, pp. 47-63. Eötvös University Press, Budapest.
133. Vienna A. & Capucci E. 1994. Menarcheal age in Italy. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 6: 547-549.
134. Wedderkopp N., Froberg K., Hansen H.S. & Andersen L.B. 2004. Secular trends in physical fitness and obesity in Danish 9-year-old girls and boys: Odense School Child Study and Danish substudy of the European Youth Heart Study. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports, 14: 150-155.
135. Wellens R., Malina R.M., Roche A.F., Chumlea W.C., Guo S. & Siervogel R.M. 1992. Body size and fatness in young adults in relation to age at menarche. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 4: 783-787.
136. Werner B. 2007. Growth in Sweden. Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm.
137. Westerstahl M., Barnekow-Bergkvist M., Hedberg G. & Jansson E. 2003a. Secular trends in sports: participation and attitudes among adolescents in Sweden from 1974 to 1995. Acta Paediatr., 92: 602-609.
138. Westerstahl M., Barnekow-Bergkvist M., Hedberg G. & Jansson E. 2003b. Secular trends in body dimensions and physical fitness among adolescents in Sweden from 1974 to 1995. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports, 13: 128-137.
139. Wyshak G. 1983. Secular changes in age at menarche in a sample of US women. Ann. Hum. Biol., 10: 75-77.
140. Zhang X. & Huang Z. 1988. The second national growth and development survey of children in China, 1985, children 0 to 7 years. Ann. Hum. Biol., 15, 289-305.
141. Ziólkowska E. 1997. Linear features of Polish population in the years 1962-1992. Tendencies in changes. Z. Morph. Anthrop., 81, 345-360.
142. Žukuskaité S., Lašiené D., Urbonaité B. & Hindmarsh P. 2005. Onset of breast and pubic hair development in 1231 preadolescent Lithuanian schoolgirls. Arch. Dis. Child., 90: 932-936.